-
Vladimir Lenin
Russian founder of the Bolsheviks and leader of the Russian Revolution and first head of the USSR (1870-1924)
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
industrialize
organize (the production of something) into an industry
In the late nineteenth century, the major
industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
Mustafa Kemal
Turkish statesman who abolished the caliphate and founded Turkey as a modern secular state (1881-1938)
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish military officer who led Turkey to independence in 1921.
-
Kemal Ataturk
Turkish statesman who abolished the caliphate and founded Turkey as a modern secular state (1881-1938)
Mustafa
Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish military officer who led Turkey to independence in 1921.
-
nationalist leader
the leader of a nationalist movement
In colonized regions of the world,
nationalist leaders began to challenge European control, many inspired by the liberal democratic traditions of Europe and the US, some inspired by communism and fascism.
-
mobilize
make ready for action or use
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia
mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
Nazism
a form of socialism featuring racism and expansionism and obedience to a strong leader
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (
Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
Mao Zedong
Chinese communist leader (1893-1976)
Though communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader,
Mao Zedong, achieved victory in China.
-
Ataturk
Turkish statesman who abolished the caliphate and founded Turkey as a modern secular state (1881-1938)
Mustafa Kemal
Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish military officer who led Turkey to independence in 1921.
-
Oswald Spengler
German philosopher who argued that cultures grow and decay in cycles (1880-1936)
The historian
Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
quantum physics
the branch of physics based on quantum theory
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and
quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
elite group
a group or class of persons enjoying superior intellectual or social or economic status
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of
elite groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
-
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
a former communist country in eastern Europe and northern Asia; established in 1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet socialist republics (Ukraine and Byelorussia and others); officially dissolved 31 December 1991
They were left, however, ruling a country, now the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years earlier.
-
fascism
a political theory advocating an authoritarian government
Hitler became an advocate of
fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
Francis Ferdinand
archduke of Austria and heir apparent to Francis Joseph I
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke
Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
urbanized
made urban in nature; taking on urban characteristics
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more
urbanized, and more productive.
-
cross-cultural
dealing with or comparing two or more cultures
More extensive
cross-cultural exchanges of artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
ideology
an orientation that characterizes the thinking of a group
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s
ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
exploitative
tending to exploit or make use of
To many, liberalism seemed only a veneer that protected
exploitative and incompetent governments and allowed social and economic inequities in the world to continue.
-
Heisenberg
German mathematical physicist noted for stating the uncertainty principle (1901-1976)
Albert Einstein, Werner
Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
industrialized
made industrial; converted to industrialism
In the late nineteenth century, the major
industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
Lenin
Russian founder of the Bolsheviks and leader of the Russian Revolution and first head of the USSR (1870-1924)
Vladimir
Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
nineteenth
position 19 in a countable series of things
In the late
nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
mustard gas
a toxic war gas with sulfide based compounds that raises blisters and attacks the eyes and lungs; there is no known antidote
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and
mustard gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
colonized
inhabited by colonists
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ61-620
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
Nationalism in the
colonized world.
-
Ottoman
of or relating to the Ottoman Empire or its people or its culture
The
Ottoman Turkish empire joined World War I on the German and Austro-Hungarian side.
-
national socialism
a form of socialism featuring racism and expansionism and obedience to a strong leader
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘
National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
industrialization
the development of commercial enterprise
In 1929, Stalin, Lenin’s successor, launched a radical, state-led
industrialization drive.
-
world war
a war in which the major nations of the world are involved
The Great War. The two
world wars together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
World War I
a war between the allies (Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, United States, Japan, Rumania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Montenegro) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) from 1914 to 1918
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
Spengler
German philosopher who argued that cultures grow and decay in cycles (1880-1936)
The historian Oswald
Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
art form
a form of artistic expression
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary
art forms such as photography.
-
nationalist
one who loves and defends his or her country
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian
nationalist in June 1914.
-
theory of relativity
(physics) the theory that space and time are relative concepts rather than absolute concepts
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the
theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
subway station
a terminal where subways load and unload passengers
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan
subway station.
-
mainland China
a communist nation that covers a vast territory in eastern Asia; the most populous country in the world
Japan, seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded Chinese Manchuria in 1931 and
mainland China in 1937.
-
Hitler
German Nazi dictator during World War II (1889-1945)
In Germany, Adolph
Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
authoritarianism
government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed
authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
material resource
assets in the form of material possessions
And the Soviet Union mobilized huge human and
material resources with brutal efficiency.
-
challenge
a call to engage in a contest or fight
The end of the war left the liberal capitalist system facing many daunting
challenges.
-
1930s
the decade from 1930 to 1939
The portrait dates to the
1930s.
-
punitive
inflicting punishment
The League had little independent power, however, and the
punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
war
the waging of armed conflict against an enemy
The Great
War. The two world wars together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
belligerence
hostile or warlike attitude or nature
In Europe, Nazi racist
belligerence and aggression against its neighbors, first Austria and Czechoslovakia, then Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
November 11
a legal holiday in the United States
On
November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice.
-
rail line
the road consisting of railroad track and roadbed
The
rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
disunity
lack of unity (usually resulting from dissension)
Exploiting international
disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
popularize
cater to popular taste to make popular and present to the general public; bring into general or common use
The new media also helped
popularize sports such as football and baseball.
-
fascist
an adherent of right-wing authoritarian views
Fascist governments.
-
Industrial Revolution
the transformation from an agricultural to an industrial nation
In the aftermath of World War II, it was not at all certain that humans could find a way of living with the terrifying technological powers unleashed by the
Industrial Revolution.
-
League of Nations
an international organization formed in 1920 to promote cooperation and peace among nations; although suggested by Woodrow Wilson, the United States never joined and it remained powerless; it was dissolved in 1946 after the United Nations was formed
It also created the
League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
Pablo Picasso
prolific and influential Spanish artist who lived in France
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
invade
march aggressively into a territory by military force
Austro-Hungary consequently
invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
Hiroshima
a port city on the southwestern coast of Honshu in Japan
Japan surrendered after the US dropped atomic bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August.
-
colony
a group of organisms of the same type living together
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and
colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
Sigmund Freud
Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis
In psychology,
Sigmund Freud showed the power of irrational forces that lurked in the human sub-conscious.
-
Nicholas II
the last czar of Russia who was forced to abdicate in 1917 by the Russian Revolution; he and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks (1868-1918)
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar
Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
concentration camp
a penal camp where political prisoners or prisoners of war are confined (usually under harsh conditions)
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi
concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
communism
a theory favoring collectivism in a classless society
Before they could realize
communism, they argued, they would have to rebuild Russia’s economy.
-
Republic of China
a government on the island of Taiwan established in 1949 by Chiang Kai-shek after the conquest of mainland China by the Communists led by Mao Zedong
On October 1, 1949, he announced the formation of the “People’s
Republic of China.”
-
inequality
lack of balance or similarity in status
He believed that Russia would pioneer a new and better type of society, one that would do away with the political and economic
inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
rearm
arm again
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to
rearm.
-
labor camp
a penal institution for political prisoners who are used as forced labor
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced
labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
World War II
a war between the Allies and the Axis from 1939 to 1945
In parts of Africa, too, new educated leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Senghor, and Julius Nyerere, emerged, and in the aftermath of
World War II they began to demand total independence.
-
home front
the civilian population of a country at war
On the
home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
humans
all of the living human inhabitants of the earth
This meant that about one third of all
humans lived under Communist governments.
-
aftermath
the consequences of an event
In parts of Africa, too, new educated leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Senghor, and Julius Nyerere, emerged, and in the
aftermath of World War II they began to demand total independence.
-
Germany
a republic in central Europe
In 1917, the US entered the war against
Germany and its allies.
-
inequity
injustice by virtue of not conforming with standards
To many, liberalism seemed only a veneer that protected exploitative and incompetent governments and allowed social and economic
inequities in the world to continue.
-
unilaterally
by means of one part or party
The Bolsheviks
unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a civil struggle against internal enemies, and expelled most of the country’s capitalists.
-
catalog
a complete list of things; usually arranged systematically
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online
Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
capitalist
of an economic system based on private ownership
The end of the war left the liberal
capitalist system facing many daunting challenges.
-
trusteeship
the position of trustee
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “
trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
Isaac Newton
English mathematician and physicist
They both undermined
Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
West African
of or relating to the countries or cultures or people of West Africa
For example,
West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
empire
the domain ruled by a single authoritative sovereign
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian
empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
deliberative
involved in or characterized by deliberation and discussion and examination
It also created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world
deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
Soviet Union
a former communist country in eastern Europe and northern Asia; established in 1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet socialist republics (Ukraine and Byelorussia and others); officially dissolved 31 December 1991
Photo by Ross Dunn
Vladimir Lenin
The rise of the
Soviet Union.
-
imperialism
a policy of extending your rule over foreign countries
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and
imperialism.
-
European
of or relating to or characteristic of Europe
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among
European countries.
-
Great Depression
the economic crisis beginning with the stock market crash in 1929 and continuing through the 1930s
The United States and most European countries followed only after World War I. Socialist parties also challenged governments, particularly during the
Great Depression, to tackle the inequalities that were still widespread in democratic and wealthy nations.
-
twentieth century
the century from 1901 to 2000
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
Albert Einstein
physicist born in Germany who formulated the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity; Einstein also proposed that light consists of discrete quantized bundles of energy (later called photons) (1879-1955)
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
kiosk
small area set off by walls for special use
-
Czech Republic
a landlocked republic in central Europe
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the
Czech Republic.
-
liberalism
a political orientation favoring social progress by reform
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style
liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
inspire
serve as the inciting cause of
This success
inspired some political leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
liberal
showing or characterized by broad-mindedness
The end of the war left the
liberal capitalist system facing many daunting challenges.
-
inspirational
imparting a divine influence on the mind and soul
In Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) it found an
inspirational and creative leader.
-
technological
of a practical subject organized by scientific principles
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and
technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
Africa
the second largest continent
French, British, or Japanese forces seized German colonies in the Pacific and
Africa.
-
farmland
a rural area where farming is practiced
Millions of civilians died as well, and destruction of infrastructure, industries, and
farmland was colossal.
-
citizenry
the body of citizens of a state or country
The US concentrated its wealth, industry, and
citizenry on the war effort.
-
colonialism
exploitation by a stronger country of weaker one
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European
colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
mow down
kill a large number of people indiscriminately
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be
mowed down.
-
civilian
a nonmilitary citizen
Aircraft strafed and dropped bombs on soldiers and
civilians.
-
world
the 3rd planet from the sun; the planet we live on
The Great War. The two
world wars together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
heartland
the central region of a country or continent
However, Turkey, the
heartland of the former Ottoman empire, emerged from the war as an independent state under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
-
Soviet
of or relating to or characteristic of the former Soviet Union or its people
Photo by Ross Dunn
Vladimir Lenin
The rise of the
Soviet Union.
-
undermine
weaken or impair, especially gradually
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion,
undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
conflict
an open clash between two opposing groups
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial
conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
horrifying
provoking horror
World War I proved more
horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
Serbia
a historical region in central and northern Yugoslavia
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded
Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
Nagasaki
a city in southern Japan on Kyushu
Japan surrendered after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in August.
-
Great War
a war between the allies (Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, United States, Japan, Rumania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Montenegro) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) from 1914 to 1918
The
Great War. The two world wars together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
Czechoslovakia
a former republic in central Europe
In Europe, Nazi racist belligerence and aggression against its neighbors, first Austria and
Czechoslovakia, then Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
democratic
based upon the principles of social equality
In colonized regions of the world, nationalist leaders began to challenge European control, many inspired by the liberal
democratic traditions of Europe and the US, some inspired by communism and fascism.
-
embroiled
deeply involved especially in something complicated
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was
embroiled in war.
-
relativity
the quality of having significance vis-a-vis something else
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of
relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
daunting
discouraging through fear
The end of the war left the liberal capitalist system facing many
daunting challenges.
-
strafe
attack with machine guns or cannon fire from a low-flying plane
Aircraft
strafed and dropped bombs on soldiers and civilians.
-
Ho Chi Minh
Vietnamese communist statesman who fought the Japanese in World War II and the French until 1954 and South Vietnam until 1975 (1890-1969)
In China and Vietnam the anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and
Ho Chi Minh.
-
rearmament
the act of arming again
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy, embarked on a similar program of nationalist
rearmament.
-
goer
someone who leaves
In doing so, however, they also ensured that Soviet movie-
goers would learn about Hollywood and American values.
-
abdicate
give up, such as power, as of monarchs and emperors
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to
abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
disillusion
freeing from false belief
It was a world
disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
reparation
something done or paid in expiation of a wrong
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying
reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
capitalism
an economic system based on private ownership of assets
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both
capitalism and imperialism.
-
take control
assume control
Warfare became “total,” as governments
took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
authoritarian
characteristic of an absolute ruler or absolute rule
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second
authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
unimaginable
totally unlikely
The world of 1950, however, was just as divided and conflict-ridden, and it bristled with dangerous weapons
unimaginable in 1900.
-
West Africa
an area of western Africa between the Sahara Desert and the Gulf of Guinea
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa,
West Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
radio
medium for communication
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to
radios.
-
cultural
relating to the shared knowledge and values of a society
More extensive cross-
cultural exchanges of artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
creativity
the ability to bring something into existence
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new
creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
Depression
a period during the 1930s when there was a worldwide economic depression and mass unemployment
Nazism built on the sense of despair that World War I, the
Depression, and the punitive war reparations caused among Germans.
-
Asia
the largest continent with 60% of the earth's population
Troops from French and British colonies in
Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
elite
a group or class of persons enjoying superior status
Entirely new art forms, such as motion pictures, radio drama, and jazz blurred the lines between
elite and popular culture.
-
independence
freedom from control or influence of another or others
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish military officer who led Turkey to
independence in 1921.
-
Mongolian
a member of the nomadic peoples of Mongolia
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and
Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
include
have as a part, be made up out of
The wars had many causes,
including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
leaders
the body of people who lead a group
This success inspired some political
leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
rationalism
the doctrine that reason is the basis for regulating conduct
In the fine arts, a mood of anti-
rationalism and pessimism brought forth new genres of art.
-
century
a period of 100 years
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a
centuries-old tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
Benito Mussolini
Italian fascist dictator (1883-1945)
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy, embarked on a similar program of nationalist rearmament.
-
motif
a recurrent element in a literary or artistic work
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional
motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
leader
a person who rules or guides or inspires others
This success inspired some political
leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
peace treaty
a treaty to cease hostilities
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive
peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
global
involving the entire earth
The Great War. The two world wars together were a major cause of change in the
global distribution of power.
-
atomic bomb
a nuclear weapon in which enormous energy is released by nuclear fission (splitting the nuclei of a heavy element like uranium 235 or plutonium 239)
Japan surrendered after the US dropped
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August.
-
Europe
the 2nd smallest continent
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of
Europe was embroiled in war.
-
refine
reduce to a pure state
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
-
bristled
having or covered with protective barbs or quills or spines or thorns or setae etc.
The world of 1950, however, was just as divided and conflict-ridden, and it
bristled with dangerous weapons unimaginable in 1900.
-
mandate
a document giving an official instruction or command
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “
mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
reproduction
the act of making copies
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
Mao
Chinese communist leader (1893-1976)
Though communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader,
Mao Zedong, achieved victory in China.
-
values
beliefs of a group in which they have emotional investment
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal
values.
-
Austria
a mountainous republic in central Europe
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and
Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
colossal
so great in size or force or extent as to elicit awe
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the
colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
quantum
the smallest discrete quantity of some physical property
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and
quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
taken for granted
evident without proof or argument
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had
taken for granted.
-
machine gun
a rapidly firing automatic gun (often mounted)
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as
machine guns and battleships.
-
embroil
force into some kind of situation or course of action
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was
embroiled in war.
-
fledgling
young bird that has just fledged or become capable of flying
It also created the League of Nations, the first
fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
veneer
coating consisting of a thin layer of wood
To many, liberalism seemed only a
veneer that protected exploitative and incompetent governments and allowed social and economic inequities in the world to continue.
-
Turkey
a Eurasian republic in Asia Minor and the Balkans
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish military officer who led
Turkey to independence in 1921.
-
1920s
the decade from 1920 to 1929
World War II. All the challenges of the
1920s and 1930s led toward a new round of conflict.
-
military officer
any person in the armed services who holds a position of authority or command
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938), the Turkish
military officer who led Turkey to independence in 1921.
-
democracy
the orientation of those who favor government by the people
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal
democracy.
-
twentieth
position 20 in a countable series of things
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
San Jose
a city in western California located at the southern end of San Francisco Bay to the south of San Francisco; a center for computer and electronics industries
-
incorporate
make into a whole or make part of a whole
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists
incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
infrastructure
the basic features of a system or organization
Millions of civilians died as well, and destruction of
infrastructure, industries, and farmland was colossal.
-
autocratic
characteristic of an absolute ruler or absolute rule
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the
autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
economic
of or relating to production and management of wealth
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing
economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
political leader
a person active in party politics
This success inspired some
political leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
inspired
of surpassing excellence
This success
inspired some political leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
disillusioned
freed from false ideas
It was a world
disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
ally
a friendly nation
They also prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its
allies.
-
concentrate
make denser, stronger, or purer
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power
concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
tradition
a specific practice of long standing
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old
tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
Union
the United States
Photo by Ross Dunn
Vladimir Lenin
The rise of the Soviet
Union.
-
racist
a person with a belief in the superiority of one people
In Europe, Nazi
racist belligerence and aggression against its neighbors, first Austria and Czechoslovakia, then Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
unleash
turn loose or free from restraint
In the aftermath of World War II, it was not at all certain that humans could find a way of living with the terrifying technological powers
unleashed by the Industrial Revolution.
-
compromising
making or willing to make concessions
On the other hand, the US, Britain, and several other European countries mobilized millions of citizens for war without
compromising their democratic institutions very much.
-
second half
the second of two halves of play
Could peace be preserved better in the
second half of the century?
-
economic growth
steady growth in the productive capacity of the economy
Could the machinery of
economic growth reduce the global inequalities that had helped fuel the conflicts of 1900-1950?
-
forging
shaping metal by heating and hammering
They also prepared for war by
forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
motion picture
a form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and a sequence of images giving the illusion of continuous movement
Entirely new art forms, such as
motion pictures, radio drama, and jazz blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
bestseller
a book that has had a large and rapid sale
The book, which became a
bestseller, argued that all civilizations rise and fall and that World War I marked the beginning of Europe’s decline.
-
technology
the practical application of science to commerce or industry
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the
technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
Nazi
a German member of Adolf Hitler's political party
The
Nazi party flourished, and in 1933 Hitler became Germany’s leader.
-
predictable
capable of being foretold
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and
predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
pessimism
a general disposition to expect the worst in all things
In the fine arts, a mood of anti-rationalism and
pessimism brought forth new genres of art.
-
economy
the system of production and distribution and consumption
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial
economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
New Zealand
an independent country within the British Commonwealth
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
grisly
shockingly repellent; inspiring horror
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a
grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
North Africa
an area of northern Africa between the Sahara and the Mediterranean Sea
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union,
North Africa, West Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
popular
regarded with great favor or approval by the general public
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts,
popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
Manchuria
a region in northeastern China
Japan, seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded Chinese
Manchuria in 1931 and mainland China in 1937.
-
mobilization
act of marshaling, organizing, and making ready for use
Mobilization for war was even more “total” than in the first war, particularly in Germany and the Soviet Union.
-
rhetoric
study of the technique for using language effectively
In China and Vietnam the anti-imperial
rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
ensure
make certain of
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919
ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
culture
all the knowledge and values shared by a society
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular
culture, and political and social thought.
-
casualty
someone injured or killed in an accident
Civilians played as vital a role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing number of
casualties.
-
resource
aid or support that may be drawn upon when needed
Warfare became “total,” as governments took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and
resources.
-
imitator
someone who copies the words or behavior of another
Fascism found other
imitators as well, for example, in Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
headway
forward movement
Though communist movements made little
headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, achieved victory in China.
-
ruthlessly
in a ruthless manner
He
ruthlessly seized Russian peasant lands, thereby eliminating the last remaining bastions of capitalism.
-
emerge
come out into view, as from concealment
However, Turkey, the heartland of the former Ottoman empire,
emerged from the war as an independent state under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
-
concentration
the spatial property of being crowded together
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi
concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
destructive
causing damage
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal
destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
harnessed
brought under control and put to use
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was
harnessed for the fight.
-
wrestle
the act of engaging in close hand-to-hand combat
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians
wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
Zealand
the largest island of Denmark and the site of Copenhagen
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
million
the number that is represented as a one followed by 6 zeros
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and mustard gas killed soldiers by the
millions.
-
Hungarian
relating to or characteristic of Hungary
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-
Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
1990s
the decade from 1990 to 1999
In Russia the creation of the world’s first Communist state posed a challenge to the entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the
1990s.
-
Russia
a federation in northeastern Europe and northern Asia
Austro-Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally
Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
weapon
any instrument used in fighting or hunting
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern
weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
tsar
a male monarch or emperor
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of
Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
Serbian
of or relating to the people or language or culture of the region of Serbia
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a
Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
Southeast Asia
a geographical division of Asia that includes Indochina plus Indonesia and the Philippines and Singapore
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa, West Africa, East Asia,
Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
socialist
advocating the state ownership of industry
They were left, however, ruling a country, now the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years earlier.
-
front line
the line along which opposing armies face each other
Soldiers carrying a wounded comrade away from the
front lines, Western Front, France, 1917.
-
Einstein
physicist born in Germany who formulated the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity; Einstein also proposed that light consists of discrete quantized bundles of energy (later called photons) (1879-1955)
Albert
Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
Pearl Harbor
a harbor on Oahu to the west of Honolulu
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, and Japan, Hitler’s ally, attacked the United States at
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
-
Stalin
Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition (1879-1953)
In 1929,
Stalin, Lenin’s successor, launched a radical, state-led industrialization drive.
-
modern
ahead of the times
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of
modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
bristle
a stiff hair
The world of 1950, however, was just as divided and conflict-ridden, and it
bristled with dangerous weapons unimaginable in 1900.
-
Japan
a constitutional monarchy occupying the Japanese Archipelago
Japan, seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded Chinese Manchuria in 1931 and mainland China in 1937.
-
take for granted
take to be the case or to be true
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had
taken for granted.
-
Freud
Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis
In psychology, Sigmund
Freud showed the power of irrational forces that lurked in the human sub-conscious.
-
Middle East
the area around the eastern Mediterranean
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the
Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
theoretically
in theory; according to the assumed facts
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships”
theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
photo
a representation of a person or scene in the form of a print or transparent slide; recorded by a camera on light-sensitive material
Photo by Ross Dunn
Vladimir Lenin
The rise of the Soviet Union.
-
genre
a kind of literary or artistic work
In the fine arts, a mood of anti-rationalism and pessimism brought forth new
genres of art.
-
bastion
projecting part of a rampart or other fortification
He ruthlessly seized Russian peasant lands, thereby eliminating the last remaining
bastions of capitalism.
-
Ross
a politician in Wyoming who was the first woman governor in the United States (1876-1977)
Photo by
Ross Dunn
Vladimir Lenin
The rise of the Soviet Union.
-
fine arts
the study and creation of visual works of art
In the
fine arts, a mood of anti-rationalism and pessimism brought forth new genres of art.
-
Hungary
a republic in central Europe
Austro-
Hungary consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
long-range
suitable for or reaching long distances
Machine guns,
long-range artillery, and mustard gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
nationalism
the doctrine that your country's interests are superior
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ61-620
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
Nationalism in the colonized world.
-
wall in
enclose with a wall
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a
wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
irrational
not consistent with or using reason
In psychology, Sigmund Freud showed the power of
irrational forces that lurked in the human sub-conscious.
-
concentrated
gathered together or made less diffuse
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power
concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
government
the system or form by which a community is ruled
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern
governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
blurred
indistinct or hazy in outline
Entirely new art forms, such as motion pictures, radio drama, and jazz
blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
online
connected to a computer network or accessible by computer
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs
Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
assassinated
murdered by surprise attack for political reasons
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was
assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
brutal
resembling a beast; showing lack of human sensibility
Even so, Stalin’s
brutal methods produced a powerful industrial economy.
-
immune
of the condition in which an organism can resist disease
The major liberal democracies were by no means
immune to new problems.
-
Picasso
prolific and influential Spanish artist who lived in France
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo
Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
science
ability to produce solutions in some problem domain
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology,
science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
incompetent
not qualified or suited for a purpose
To many, liberalism seemed only a veneer that protected exploitative and
incompetent governments and allowed social and economic inequities in the world to continue.
-
soldier
an enlisted man or woman who serves in an army
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and mustard gas killed
soldiers by the millions.
-
achieve
gain with effort
Though communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong,
achieved victory in China.
-
Southwest
the southwestern region of the United States generally including New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Nevada, California, and sometimes Utah and Colorado
(The German colony of
Southwest Africa was turned over to South Africa as a mandate.)
-
German
of or pertaining to or characteristic of Germany or its people or language
The Ottoman Turkish empire joined World War I on the
German and Austro-Hungarian side.
-
unfavorable
not favorable
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism,
unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
increasingly
advancing in amount or intensity
Nationalist leaders in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia became
increasingly skilled at using newspapers and radio to build mass support.
-
do away with
terminate, end, or take out
He believed that Russia would pioneer a new and better type of society, one that would
do away with the political and economic inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
political
involving or characteristic of governing or social power
Into this
political vacuum stepped the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-24).
-
economically
in a manner using the minimum of time or resources
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and
economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
saddled
having a saddle on or being mounted on a saddled animal
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and
saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
mosaic
design made of small pieces of colored stone or glass
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a
mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
Marxist
advocate of the economic and political theories of Karl Marx
As a
Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
revolution
a single complete turn
The conflagration showed a dark side of the modern
revolution.
-
league
an association of states or individuals for common action
It also created the
League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
industrial
of or relating to commercial enterprise
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and
industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
Southeast
the southeastern region of the United States
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa, West Africa, East Asia,
Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
arts
studies intended to provide general knowledge and skills
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the
arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
embark on
get off the ground
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy,
embarked on a similar program of nationalist rearmament.
-
daunt
cause to lose courage
The end of the war left the liberal capitalist system facing many
daunting challenges.
-
Bolshevik
a Russian member of the left-wing majority group that followed Lenin and eventually became the Russian communist party
Into this political vacuum stepped the
Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-24).
-
Communist
a member of the communist party
In Russia the creation of the world’s first
Communist state posed a challenge to the entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the 1990s.
-
photography
the process of producing images of objects on photosensitive surfaces
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as
photography.
-
purge
rid of impurities
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political
purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
huge
unusually great in amount or degree or extent or scope
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the
huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
battleship
large and heavily armoured warship
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and
battleships.
-
subway
an electric railway operating below the surface of the ground (usually in a city)
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan
subway station.
-
conflagration
a very intense and uncontrolled fire
The
conflagration showed a dark side of the modern revolution.
-
Czech
of or relating to Czechoslovakia or its people or their language
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the
Czech Republic.
-
terrifying
causing extreme terror
In the aftermath of World War II, it was not at all certain that humans could find a way of living with the
terrifying technological powers unleashed by the Industrial Revolution.
-
posed
arranged for pictorial purposes
In Russia the creation of the world’s first Communist state
posed a challenge to the entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the 1990s.
-
generate
bring into existence
Or was the world doomed to ever more destructive conflicts as power groups fought over the wealth that the technology and science of the modern revolution had
generated?
-
artistic
relating to the products of human creativity
More extensive cross-cultural exchanges of
artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
mow
cut with a blade or mower
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be
mowed down.
-
Turkish
of or relating to or characteristic of Turkey or its people or language
The Ottoman
Turkish empire joined World War I on the German and Austro-Hungarian side.
-
Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a republic in northeastern Africa on the Red Sea
Fascist Italy invaded
Ethiopia in 1935.
-
provisional
under terms not final or fully worked out or agreed upon
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “
provisional government.”
-
armistice
a state of peace agreed to between opponents
On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an
armistice.
-
Vietnam
a communist state in Indochina on the South China Sea
In China and
Vietnam the anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
pioneer
one the first colonists or settlers in a new territory
He believed that Russia would
pioneer a new and better type of society, one that would do away with the political and economic inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
warfare
the waging of armed conflict against an enemy
Warfare became “total,” as governments took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
take over
seize and take control without authority and possibly with force; take as one's right or possession
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who
took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
nation
a politically organized body of people under a government
It also created the League of
Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
Gandhi
political and spiritual leader during India's struggle with Great Britain for home rule; an advocate of passive resistance (1869-1948)
In Mohandas
Gandhi (1869-1948) it found an inspirational and creative leader.
-
mustard
pungent powder or paste prepared from ground mustard seeds
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and
mustard gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
for example
as an example
Fascism found other imitators as well,
for example, in Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
human
a person; a hominid with a large brain and articulate speech
This meant that about one third of all
humans lived under Communist governments.
-
China
a communist nation that covers a vast territory in eastern Asia; the most populous country in the world
Though communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, achieved victory in
China.
-
broaden
make broader
In fact, these nations
broadened the base of popular participation in civic life, notably to include women.
-
power
possession of the qualities required to do something
The Great War. The two world wars together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of
power.
-
tipped
departing or being caused to depart from the true vertical or horizontal
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually
tipped the balance against the central European powers.
-
educate
give knowledge acquired by learning and instruction
In parts of Africa, too, new
educated leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Senghor, and Julius Nyerere, emerged, and in the aftermath of World War II they began to demand total independence.
-
depicted
represented graphically by sketch or design or lines
Vladimir Lenin
depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
chi
the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet
In China and Vietnam the anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho
Chi Minh.
-
British
of or relating to or characteristic of Great Britain or its people or culture
French,
British, or Japanese forces seized German colonies in the Pacific and Africa.
-
munition
weapons considered collectively
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in
munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
state
the way something is with respect to its main attributes
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized
states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
art
the creation of beautiful or significant things
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the
arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
access
the right to enter
Radios gave leaders
access to vast audiences, and gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
Britain
a monarchy in northwestern Europe occupying most of the British Isles; divided into England and Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland; `Great Britain' is often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle East were taken over by France and
Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
populous
densely populated
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more
populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
compulsory
required by rule
The strains and costs of
compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
continuation
the act of continuing an activity without interruption
In some sense, World War II was a
continuation of the first war.
-
vacuum
an empty area or space
Into this political
vacuum stepped the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-24).
-
come together
come together, as if in an embrace
Nevertheless, nationalist movements for reform and independence began to
come together in the colonies.
-
Mussolini
Italian fascist dictator (1883-1945)
Benito
Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy, embarked on a similar program of nationalist rearmament.
-
incorporated
formed or united into a whole
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists
incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
new
not of long duration
He believed that Russia would pioneer a
new and better type of society, one that would do away with the political and economic inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
archduke
a sovereign prince of the former ruling house of Austria
The dangers of this system became apparent when
Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
seize
take hold of; grab
French, British, or Japanese forces
seized German colonies in the Pacific and Africa.
-
horrify
fill with apprehension or alarm
World War I proved more
horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
East
the countries of Asia
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle
East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
dominate
be in control
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically
dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
physics
the science of matter and energy and their interactions
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum
physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
Oswald
United States assassin of President John F. Kennedy
The historian
Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
decline
grow worse
The historian Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The
Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
item
a distinct part that can be specified separately in a group
Ideas
item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
eliminate
end, take out, or do away with
He ruthlessly seized Russian peasant lands, thereby
eliminating the last remaining bastions of capitalism.
-
forge
create by hammering
They also prepared for war by
forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
republic
a form of government whose head of state is not a monarch
They were left, however, ruling a country, now the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years earlier.
-
blur
confuse or make unclear
Entirely new art forms, such as motion pictures, radio drama, and jazz
blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
allies
an coalition of nations joining to fight a common enemy
They also prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its
allies.
-
systematic
characterized by order and planning
The horror of the war found its most potent symbol in the Nazis’
systematic murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
-
Western
a film about life in the western United States during the period of exploration and development
Soldiers carrying a wounded comrade away from the
front lines,
Western Front, France, 1917.
-
nazi
derogatory term for a person who is fanatically dedicated to, or seeks to control, some activity, practice, etc.
The horror of the war found its most potent symbol in the
Nazis’ systematic murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
-
argue
have a disagreement about something
Before they could realize communism, they
argued, they would have to rebuild Russia’s economy.
-
wartime
a period of time during which there is armed conflict
He used planning techniques pioneered by
wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
prepare for
prepare mentally or emotionally for something unpleasant
They also
prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
quicker
more quickly
The popular press helped spread new political messages, including fascism and communism, while giving people in democratic societies broader and
quicker access to information about the world.
-
competition
the act of contending with others for rewards or resources
The wars had many causes, including
competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
discredit
the state of being held in low esteem
Even for many citizens of European democracies, the horrors of war seemed to
discredit the liberal ideology that had seemed so full of promise in the late nineteenth century.
-
United States
North American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in 1776
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the
United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
photograph
a representation of a person or scene in the form of a print
Library of Congress
Prints and
Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
worldwide
spanning or extending throughout the entire world
Because the rivalries that caused the war were
worldwide, so was its impact.
-
Hawaii
a state in the United States in the central Pacific on the Hawaiian Islands
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, and Japan, Hitler’s ally, attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
-
country
the territory occupied by a nation
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among European
countries.
-
Pacific
relating to or bordering the Pacific Ocean
French, British, or Japanese forces seized German colonies in the
Pacific and Africa.
-
competitive
involving rivalry over something
Nazism offered an extreme version of the
competitive nationalist ideologies that had led to the war.
-
become
come into existence
The dangers of this system
became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
Eight
a group of United States painters founded in 1907 and noted for their realistic depictions of sordid aspects of city life
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era
Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
rivalry
the act of competing as for profit or a prize
Because the
rivalries that caused the war were worldwide, so was its impact.
-
scientist
a person with advanced knowledge of empirical fields
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other
scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
jazz
genre of American music that developed in the 20th century
Entirely new art forms, such as motion pictures, radio drama, and
jazz blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
front
the side that is forward or prominent
On Europe’s western
front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
aggression
a disposition to behave forcefully and energetically
In Europe, Nazi racist belligerence and
aggression against its neighbors, first Austria and Czechoslovakia, then Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
mainland
the main land mass of a country or continent
Japan, seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded Chinese Manchuria in 1931 and
mainland China in 1937.
-
heritage
that which is inherited
Perhaps for the first time in history, popular culture, instead of being just the cultural
heritage of a particular region, began to reach around the globe.
-
civic
of or relating or belonging to a city
In fact, these nations broadened the base of popular participation in
civic life, notably to include women.
-
revive
cause to regain consciousness
As in other countries, huge government expenditure for weapons was just the stimulus needed to
revive the German economy.
-
creation
the act of starting something for the first time
In Russia the
creation of the world’s first Communist state posed a challenge to the entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the 1990s.
-
alliance
the state of being confederated
They also prepared for war by forging
alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
eventually
after an unspecified period of time or a long delay
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires,
eventually tipped the balance against the central European powers.
-
crucial
of extreme importance; vital to the resolution of a crisis
His non-violent protests against British rule played a
crucial role in achieving independence in 1947.
-
percent
a proportion in relation to a whole
Perhaps 60 million people died, or 3
percent of the world’s population.
-
region
the extended spatial location of something
In colonized
regions of the world, nationalist leaders began to challenge European control, many inspired by the liberal democratic traditions of Europe and the US, some inspired by communism and fascism.
-
participation
the act of sharing in the activities of a group
In fact, these nations broadened the base of popular
participation in civic life, notably to include women.
-
preserve
keep in safety and protect from harm, loss, or destruction
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the
preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
-
population
the people who inhabit a territory or state
Warfare became “total,” as governments took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their
populations and resources.
-
consequently
as a result
Austro-Hungary
consequently invaded Serbia, Serbia’s ally Russia mobilized against Austro-Hungary, and within weeks the whole of Europe was embroiled in war.
-
major
greater in scope or effect
The Great War. The two world wars together were a
major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
Versailles
a city in north central France near Paris
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the
Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
injure
cause bodily harm to
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been
injured.
-
total
the whole amount
Warfare became “
total,” as governments took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
throw off
get rid of
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany
threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
build on
be based on; of theories and claims, for example
Nazism
built on the sense of despair that World War I, the Depression, and the punitive war reparations caused among Germans.
-
harness
an arrangement of leather straps fitted to a draft animal
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was
harnessed for the fight.
-
physic
a purging medicine
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum
physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
widespread
widely circulated or diffused
The United States and most European countries followed only after World War I. Socialist parties also challenged governments, particularly during the Great Depression, to tackle the inequalities that were still
widespread in democratic and wealthy nations.
-
stimulus
any information or event that acts to arouse action
As in other countries, huge government expenditure for weapons was just the
stimulus needed to revive the German economy.
-
western
lying toward or situated in the west
On Europe’s
western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
create
bring into existence
It also
created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
bunker
a large container for storing fuel
The Allied Powers invaded Germany from both east and west in 1945, and Hitler died in his Berlin
bunker.
-
tackle
seize and throw down an opponent player carrying the ball
The United States and most European countries followed only after World War I. Socialist parties also challenged governments, particularly during the Great Depression, to
tackle the inequalities that were still widespread in democratic and wealthy nations.
-
productive
capable of bringing forth, especially abundantly
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more
productive.
-
socialism
a political theory advocating state ownership of industry
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National
Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
liberation
the act of freeing someone or something
Communism, fascism, and new
liberation movements opposed to European imperialism severely challenged the liberal ideologies of Europe and the United States.
-
increasing
becoming greater or larger
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their
increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
cinema
a medium that disseminates moving pictures
Soviet leaders deliberately used
cinema to spread their socialist message to rural villages.
-
politically
with regard to government
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer
politically and economically dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
psychology
the science of mental life
In
psychology, Sigmund Freud showed the power of irrational forces that lurked in the human sub-conscious.
-
Allied
of or relating to or denoting the Allies in World War I
The
Allied Powers invaded Germany from both east and west in 1945, and Hitler died in his Berlin bunker.
-
medium
the surrounding environment
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new
medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
Newton
English mathematician and physicist
They both undermined Isaac
Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
demonstrate
give an exhibition of to an interested audience
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it
demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
French
of or pertaining to France or the people of France
French, British, or Japanese forces seized German colonies in the Pacific and Africa.
-
depict
give a description of
Vladimir Lenin
depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
dominated
controlled or ruled by superior authority or power
It was a world disillusioned with nineteenth-century hopes for progress, no longer politically and economically
dominated by Western Europe, more populous, more urbanized, and more productive.
-
role
the actions and activities assigned to a person or group
Civilians played as vital a
role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing number of casualties.
-
first
preceding all others in time or space or degree
It also created the League of Nations, the
first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
set on
attack someone physically or emotionally
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally
set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
granted
acknowledged as a supposition
New Zealand
granted the vote to women in 1893, the first sovereign state to do so.
-
anti
not in favor of (an action or proposal etc.)
In China and Vietnam the
anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
crisis
a crucial stage or turning point in the course of something
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite
crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
mood
a characteristic state of feeling
The historian Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this
mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
rebuild
build again
Before they could realize communism, they argued, they would have to
rebuild Russia’s economy.
-
collapse
break down, literally or metaphorically
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the
collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
notably
especially; in particular
In fact, these nations broadened the base of popular participation in civic life,
notably to include women.
-
gifted
endowed with special talent or talents
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and
gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
united
being or joined into a single entity
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the
United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
fight
be engaged in a contest or struggle
On the home fronts of all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the
fight.
-
catastrophe
a sudden violent change in the earth's surface
It also created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent future military
catastrophes.
-
true to
sexually faithful
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were
true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
aspiration
a cherished desire
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and
aspirations.
-
bomber
a military aircraft that drops bombs during flight
Weapons such as
bombers and rockets brought warfare into the centers of cities.
-
spread
distribute or disperse widely
Soviet leaders deliberately used cinema to
spread their socialist message to rural villages.
-
Lebanon
an Asian republic at east end of Mediterranean
Fascism found other imitators as well, for example, in Spain, Brazil, and
Lebanon.
-
bomb
an explosive device fused to explode under specific conditions
Aircraft strafed and dropped
bombs on soldiers and civilians.
-
metropolitan
relating to or characteristic of a large urban area
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a Moscow
metropolitan subway station.
-
skilled
having or showing or requiring special skill
Nationalist leaders in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia became increasingly
skilled at using newspapers and radio to build mass support.
-
lurk
lie in wait or behave in a sneaky and secretive manner
In psychology, Sigmund Freud showed the power of irrational forces that
lurked in the human sub-conscious.
-
defensive
an attitude of excessive sensitivity to criticism
These weapons worked so well in holding
defensive positions that decisive attacks were almost impossible.
-
die
lose all bodily functions necessary to sustain life
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had
died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
demonstrated
having been demonstrated or verified beyond doubt
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it
demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
bring forth
bring into existence
In the fine arts, a mood of anti-rationalism and pessimism
brought forth new genres of art.
-
atomic
relating to the smallest component of an element
Japan surrendered after the US dropped
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August.
-
Congress
the legislature of the United States government
Library of
Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
Ferdinand
the king of Castile and Aragon who ruled jointly with his wife Isabella; his marriage to Isabella I in 1469 marked the beginning of the modern state of Spain and their capture of Granada from the Moors in 1492 united Spain as one country; they instituted the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 and supported the expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 (1452-1516)
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
even so
despite anything to the contrary
Even so, Stalin’s brutal methods produced a powerful industrial economy.
-
famine
a severe shortage of food resulting in starvation and death
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive
famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
attack
an offensive against an enemy
These weapons worked so well in holding defensive positions that decisive
attacks were almost impossible.
-
expel
eliminate
The Bolsheviks unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a civil struggle against internal enemies, and
expelled most of the country’s capitalists.
-
France
a republic in western Europe
Soldiers carrying a wounded comrade away from the
front lines, Western Front,
France, 1917.
-
despise
look down on with disdain
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and
despised liberal values.
-
however
in whatever way or manner
The League had little independent power,
however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
doomed
people who are destined to die soon
Or was the world
doomed to ever more destructive conflicts as power groups fought over the wealth that the technology and science of the modern revolution had generated?
-
potent
having or wielding force or authority
The horror of the war found its most
potent symbol in the Nazis’ systematic murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
-
sculpture
a three-dimensional work of plastic art
For example, West African wood
sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
combine
put or add together
However, the strains of rapid economic change
combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
value
the quality that renders something desirable
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal
values.
-
library
depository containing books and other materials for reading
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
transformed
given a completely different form or appearance
The war also
transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
racial
of or related to genetically distinguished groups of people
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of
racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
creative
having the ability or power to invent or make something
In Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) it found an inspirational and
creative leader.
-
despised
treated with contempt
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and
despised liberal values.
-
horror
intense and profound fear
The
horror of the war found its most potent symbol in the Nazis’ systematic murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
-
independent
free from external control and constraint
The League had little
independent power, however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
extend to
to extend as far as
The challenges to nineteenth-century traditions
extended to science and the arts.
-
take for
keep in mind or convey as a conviction or view
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had
taken for granted.
-
stripped
with clothing stripped off
The Paris Peace Conference (1919)
stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
Isaac
the second patriarch
They both undermined
Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
impact
the striking of one body against another
Because the rivalries that caused the war were worldwide, so was its
impact.
-
refined
cultivated and genteel
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
-
South Africa
a republic at the southernmost part of Africa
(The German colony of Southwest Africa was turned over to
South Africa as a mandate.)
-
efficiency
skillfulness in avoiding wasted time and effort
And the Soviet Union mobilized huge human and material resources with brutal
efficiency.
-
restriction
an act of limiting
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and
restrictions and began to rearm.
-
boost
increase
This in turn
boosted Hitler’s popularity.
-
prolonged
relatively long in duration; tediously protracted
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly,
prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
turn over
cause to overturn from an upright or normal position
(The German colony of Southwest Africa was
turned over to South Africa as a mandate.)
-
baseball
a ball game between two teams of nine players
The new media also helped popularize sports such as football and
baseball.
-
Churchill
English general considered one of the greatest generals in history (1650-1722)
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and
Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
cost
be priced at
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the
cost of the war.
-
strain
exert much effort or energy
However, the
strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
also
in addition
They
also prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
example
an item of information that is typical of a class or group
Fascism found other imitators as well, for
example, in Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
technique
a practical method or art applied to some particular task
He used planning
techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
movement
change of position that does not entail a change of location
Though communist
movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, achieved victory in China.
-
treaty
a written agreement between two states or sovereigns
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive peace
treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse resentments.
-
West
the countries of Europe and North America and South America
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa,
West Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
rocket
a jet engine containing its own propellant and driven by reaction propulsion
Weapons such as bombers and
rockets brought warfare into the centers of cities.
-
sub
a submersible warship usually armed with torpedoes
In psychology, Sigmund Freud showed the power of irrational forces that lurked in the human
sub-conscious.
-
decisive
characterized by resoluteness and firmness
These weapons worked so well in holding defensive positions that
decisive attacks were almost impossible.
-
announce
make known
On October 1, 1949, he
announced the formation of the “People’s Republic of China.”
-
aircraft
a vehicle that can fly
Aircraft strafed and dropped bombs on soldiers and civilians.
-
Brazil
the largest Latin American country and the largest Portuguese speaking country in the world; located in the central and northeastern part of South America; world's leading coffee exporter
Fascism found other imitators as well, for example, in Spain,
Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
terrify
frighten greatly
In the aftermath of World War II, it was not at all certain that humans could find a way of living with the
terrifying technological powers unleashed by the Industrial Revolution.
-
popularity
the quality of being widely admired or accepted or sought after
This in turn boosted Hitler’s
popularity.
-
costly
having a high price
In human terms, World War II was even more
costly than the first conflict.
-
cause
events that provide the generative force of something
The Great War. The two world wars together were a major
cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
build up
enlarge, develop, or increase by degrees or in stages
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to
build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
stocks
a frame that supports a boat while it is under construction
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up
stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
camp
temporary lodgings in the country for travelers
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor
camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
convince
make realize the truth or validity of something
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was
convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
pose
assume a bearing as for artistic purposes
In Russia the creation of the world’s first Communist state
posed a challenge to the entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the 1990s.
-
wealth
property that has economic value
The US concentrated its
wealth, industry, and citizenry on the war effort.
-
rural
living in or characteristic of farming or country life
Soviet leaders deliberately used cinema to spread their socialist message to
rural villages.
-
embark
go on board
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy,
embarked on a similar program of nationalist rearmament.
-
exploit
use or manipulate to one's advantage
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
distribution
the act of spreading or apportioning
The Great War. The two world wars together were a major cause of change in the global
distribution of power.
-
agricultural
relating to or used in or promoting farming
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and
agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually tipped the balance against the central European powers.
-
resentment
a feeling of deep and bitter anger and ill-will
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to nurse
resentments.
-
idea
the content of cognition
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European
ideas of progress.
-
survive
continue in existence after
Consequently, the British and French empires not only
survived the war but became even bigger.
-
former
the first of two or the first mentioned of two
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from
former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
military
the armed forces of a nation
The wars had many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of
military competition among European countries.
-
involve
contain as a part
On the home fronts of all the states
involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
Nicholas
a bishop in Asia Minor who is associated with Santa Claus
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar
Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
supporter
a person who backs a politician or a team etc.
In India, the Indian National Congress, first established in 1885, became a powerful
supporter of independence.
-
range
a variety of different things or activities
Machine guns, long-
range artillery, and mustard gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
joined
connected by a link, as railway cars or trailer trucks
The Ottoman Turkish empire
joined World War I on the German and Austro-Hungarian side.
-
ruling
exercising power or authority
They were left, however,
ruling a country, now the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years earlier.
-
Poland
a republic in central Europe
In Europe, Nazi racist belligerence and aggression against its neighbors, first Austria and Czechoslovakia, then
Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
expenditure
the act of spending money for goods or services
As in other countries, huge government
expenditure for weapons was just the stimulus needed to revive the German economy.
-
artist
person whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination
In all those regions, intellectuals,
artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
oppose
be against
Communism, fascism, and new liberation movements
opposed to European imperialism severely challenged the liberal ideologies of Europe and the United States.
-
deliberately
in a careful unhurried manner
Soviet leaders
deliberately used cinema to spread their socialist message to rural villages.
-
begin
set in motion, cause to start
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and
began to rearm.
-
sheer
so thin as to transmit light
Eventually, the
sheer weight of resources and human numbers ranged against the fascist alliance made the difference.
-
message
a communication that is written or spoken or signaled
Soviet leaders deliberately used cinema to spread their socialist
message to rural villages.
-
planning
an act of formulating a program for a course of action
He used
planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
prolong
lengthen in time; cause to be or last longer
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly,
prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
Italy
a republic in southern Europe on the Italian Peninsula
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in
Italy, embarked on a similar program of nationalist rearmament.
-
established
brought about or set up or accepted
In India, the Indian National Congress, first
established in 1885, became a powerful supporter of independence.
-
divide
a serious disagreement between two groups of people
The world of 1950, however, was just as
divided and conflict-ridden, and it bristled with dangerous weapons unimaginable in 1900.
-
football
any of various games played with a ball (round or oval) in which two teams try to kick or carry or propel the ball into each other's goal
The new media also helped popularize sports such as
football and baseball.
-
used
previously owned by another
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states
used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
machine
a mechanical or electrical device that transmits energy
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as
machine guns and battleships.
-
alternative
one of a number of things from which only one can be chosen
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian
alternative to liberal democracy.
-
particularly
to a distinctly greater extent or degree than is common
The United States and most European countries followed only after World War I. Socialist parties also challenged governments,
particularly during the Great Depression, to tackle the inequalities that were still widespread in democratic and wealthy nations.
-
in turn
in proper order or sequence
This
in turn boosted Hitler’s popularity.
-
severely
to a severe or serious degree
Communism, fascism, and new liberation movements opposed to European imperialism
severely challenged the liberal ideologies of Europe and the United States.
-
force
influence that results in motion, stress, etc. when applied
French, British, or Japanese
forces seized German colonies in the Pacific and Africa.
-
system
a group of independent elements comprising a unified whole
The dangers of this
system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
transform
change or alter in form, appearance, or nature
The war also
transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
massive
containing a great quantity of matter
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a
massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
powerful
having great force or effect
Even so, Stalin’s brutal methods produced a
powerful industrial economy.
-
print
the text appearing in a book, newspaper, or other printed publication
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been injured.
-
played
(of games) engaged in
Civilians
played as vital a role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing number of casualties.
-
fundamental
serving as an essential component
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the
fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
live with
tolerate or accommodate oneself to
In the aftermath of World War II, it was not at all certain that humans could find a way of
living with the terrifying technological powers unleashed by the Industrial Revolution.
-
increase
a process of becoming larger or longer or more numerous
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their
increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
peace
the state prevailing during the absence of war
The Paris
Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
penalty
the disadvantage or painful consequences of an action
Exploiting international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s
penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
continue
keep or maintain in unaltered condition
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would
continue to nurse resentments.
-
compromise
an accommodation in which both sides make concessions
On the other hand, the US, Britain, and several other European countries mobilized millions of citizens for war without
compromising their democratic institutions very much.
-
inspiration
arousal of the mind to unusual activity or creativity
In China and Vietnam the anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the
inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
globe
an object with a spherical shape
Perhaps for the first time in history, popular culture, instead of being just the cultural heritage of a particular region, began to reach around the
globe.
-
Albert
prince consort of Queen Victoria of England (1819-1861)
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
late
at or toward an end or late period or stage of development
In the
late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
formation
the act of establishing or creating something
On October 1, 1949, he announced the
formation of the “People’s Republic of China.”
-
traditional
consisting of or derived from a practice of long standing
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated
traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
extend
stretch out over a distance, space, time, or scope
Governments were pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by
extending the vote to larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
bigger
large or big relative to something else
Consequently, the British and French empires not only survived the war but became even
bigger.
-
forced
forced or compelled
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was
forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
Mass
a sequence of prayers constituting the Christian Eucharistic rite
©Kathleen Cohen
German radio
Mass communication and popular culture.
-
progress
the act of moving forward, as toward a goal
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of
progress.
-
Russian
of or pertaining to or characteristic of Russia or its people or culture or language
In the late nineteenth century, the
Russian empire tried hard to industrialize to keep up with the rest of Europe.
-
national
of or relating to or belonging to a country
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘
National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
protected
kept safe or defended from danger or injury or loss
To many, liberalism seemed only a veneer that
protected exploitative and incompetent governments and allowed social and economic inequities in the world to continue.
-
revolutionary
markedly new or introducing radical change
This success inspired some political leaders and
revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
terms
status with respect to the relations between people or groups
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in
terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
leadership
the status of being in charge
However, Turkey, the heartland of the former Ottoman empire, emerged from the war as an independent state under the
leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
-
grant
let have
New Zealand
granted the vote to women in 1893, the first sovereign state to do so.
-
radical
far beyond the norm
In 1929, Stalin, Lenin’s successor, launched a
radical, state-led industrialization drive.
-
injured
harmed
Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Reproduction #LC-USZ62-98917
Western Front
By then, 15 million soldiers had died and another 20 million had been
injured.
-
advocate
a person who pleads for a person, cause, or idea
Hitler became an
advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
reduce
make smaller
Could the machinery of economic growth
reduce the global inequalities that had helped fuel the conflicts of 1900-1950?
-
facing
an ornamental coating to a building
The end of the war left the liberal capitalist system
facing many daunting challenges.
-
machinery
mechanical or electrical devices collectively
Could the
machinery of economic growth reduce the global inequalities that had helped fuel the conflicts of 1900-1950?
-
mass
the property of a body that causes it to have weight
Nationalist leaders in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia became increasingly skilled at using newspapers and radio to build
mass support.
-
people
any group of human beings collectively
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million
people.
-
era
a period marked by distinctive character
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big
Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
extensive
large in spatial extent or range or scope or quantity
More
extensive cross-cultural exchanges of artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
communist
relating to or marked by communism
Though
communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, achieved victory in China.
-
wealthy
having an abundant supply of money or possessions of value
The United States and most European countries followed only after World War I. Socialist parties also challenged governments, particularly during the Great Depression, to tackle the inequalities that were still widespread in democratic and
wealthy nations.
-
such
of so extreme a degree or extent
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons
such as machine guns and battleships.
-
Hollywood
a district of Los Angeles long associated with the American film industry
In doing so, however, they also ensured that Soviet movie-goers would learn about
Hollywood and American values.
-
citizen
a native or naturalized member of a state
Even for many
citizens of European democracies, the horrors of war seemed to discredit the liberal ideology that had seemed so full of promise in the late nineteenth century.
-
industry
the action of making of goods and services for sale
Millions of civilians died as well, and destruction of infrastructure,
industries, and farmland was colossal.
-
Australia
the smallest continent
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
primary
of first rank or importance or value
It also created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose
primary mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
flourish
grow vigorously
The Nazi party
flourished, and in 1933 Hitler became Germany’s leader.
-
doom
an unpleasant or disastrous destiny
Or was the world
doomed to ever more destructive conflicts as power groups fought over the wealth that the technology and science of the modern revolution had generated?
-
many
amounting to a large but indefinite number
The wars had
many causes, including competition for markets and colonies and a centuries-old tradition of military competition among European countries.
-
siege
an action of an armed force that surrounds a fortified place
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged
siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
determine
find out or learn with certainty, as by making an inquiry
These women and men were
determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
as well
in addition
Millions of civilians died
as well, and destruction of infrastructure, industries, and farmland was colossal.
-
masses
the common people generally
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working
masses.
-
invent
come up with after a mental effort
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology
invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from railways to radios.
-
pearl
a smooth round structure in the shell of a clam or oyster
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, and Japan, Hitler’s ally, attacked the United States at
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
-
successor
a person who follows next in order
In 1929, Stalin, Lenin’s
successor, launched a radical, state-led industrialization drive.
-
historian
a person who is an authority on the past and who studies it
The
historian Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
invasion
any entry into an area not previously occupied
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German
invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
vital
performing an essential function in the living body
Civilians played as
vital a role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing number of casualties.
-
trench
any long ditch cut in the ground
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy
trenches only to be mowed down.
-
thereby
by that means or because of that
He ruthlessly seized Russian peasant lands,
thereby eliminating the last remaining bastions of capitalism.
-
contemporary
occurring in the same period of time
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into
contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
speaker
someone who expresses in language
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and gifted
speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
capture
seize as if by hunting, snaring, or trapping
The historian Oswald Spengler, for example,
captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first published in 1918.
-
surrender
relinquish possession or control over
Japan
surrendered after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August.
-
educated
possessing an education
In parts of Africa, too, new
educated leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Senghor, and Julius Nyerere, emerged, and in the aftermath of World War II they began to demand total independence.
-
internal
located inward
The Bolsheviks unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a civil struggle against
internal enemies, and expelled most of the country’s capitalists.
-
harbor
a sheltered port where ships can take on or discharge cargo
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, and Japan, Hitler’s ally, attacked the United States at Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941.
-
keep up
maintain a required pace or level
In the late nineteenth century, the Russian empire tried hard to industrialize to
keep up with the rest of Europe.
-
Atlantic
the 2nd largest ocean
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa, West Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
-
heir
a person entitled by law to inherit the estate of another
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the
heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
masse
a shot in billiards made by hitting the cue ball with the cue held nearly vertically; the cue ball spins around another ball before hitting the object ball
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working
masses.
-
costs
pecuniary reimbursement to the winning party for the expenses of litigation
The strains and
costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of several million people.
-
fuel
a substance that can be consumed to produce energy
Could the machinery of economic growth reduce the global inequalities that had helped
fuel the conflicts of 1900-1950?
-
symbol
something visible that represents something invisible
The horror of the war found its most potent
symbol in the Nazis’ systematic murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
-
combined
made or joined or united into one
However, the strains of rapid economic change
combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
establish
set up or found
In India, the Indian National Congress, first
established in 1885, became a powerful supporter of independence.
-
social
living together or enjoying life in communities
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and
social thought.
-
woman
an adult female person (as opposed to a man)
The war also transformed the lives of many
women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
other
not the same one or ones already mentioned or implied
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and
other branches of production.
-
most
quantifier meaning the greatest in number
The Bolsheviks unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a civil struggle against internal enemies, and expelled
most of the country’s capitalists.
-
parts
the local environment
In
parts of Africa, too, new educated leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, Leopold Senghor, and Julius Nyerere, emerged, and in the aftermath of World War II they began to demand total independence.
-
artillery
large but transportable armament
Machine guns, long-range
artillery, and mustard gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
universe
everything that exists anywhere
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a fixed and predictable
universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
manage
be in charge of, act on, or dispose of
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to
manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
champion
someone who has won first place in a competition
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations,
championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
assault
attack someone physically or emotionally
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers
assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
build
make by combining materials and parts
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to
build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine guns and battleships.
-
saddle
a seat for the rider of a horse or camel
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and
saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
account for
be the reason or explanation for
Civilians played as vital a role as soldiers and also
accounted for an increasing number of casualties.
-
troops
soldiers collectively
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
tip
the extreme end of something, especially something pointed
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually
tipped the balance against the central European powers.
-
prepare
make ready or suitable or equip in advance
They also
prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
Berlin
capital of Germany located in eastern Germany
The Allied Powers invaded Germany from both east and west in 1945, and Hitler died in his
Berlin bunker.
-
more
greater in size or amount or extent or degree
World War I proved
more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
paying
for which money is paid
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of
paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
by no means
definitely not
The major liberal democracies were
by no means immune to new problems.
-
both
(used with count nouns) two considered together; the two
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of
both capitalism and imperialism.
-
rail
a horizontal bar (usually of wood or metal)
The
rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
vote
a choice made by counting people in favor of alternatives
Governments were pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by extending the
vote to larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
middle
an area that is approximately central within some larger region
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the
Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
realize
be fully aware or cognizant of
Before they could
realize communism, they argued, they would have to rebuild Russia’s economy.
-
comrade
a friend who is frequently in the company of another
Soldiers carrying a wounded
comrade away from the
front lines, Western Front, France, 1917.
-
decade
a period of 10 years
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three
decades of the twentieth century.
-
arrow
projectile with a thin shaft intended to be shot from a bow
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas
arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
drama
a work intended for performance by actors on a stage
Entirely new art forms, such as motion pictures, radio
drama, and jazz blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
together
in contact with each other or in proximity
The Great War. The two world wars
together were a major cause of change in the global distribution of power.
-
civilization
a society in an advanced state of social development
The book, which became a bestseller, argued that all
civilizations rise and fall and that World War I marked the beginning of Europe’s decline.
-
Roosevelt
32nd President of the United States
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and gifted speakers such as
Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
preserved
kept intact or in a particular condition
Could peace be
preserved better in the second half of the century?
-
version
something a little different from others of the same type
Nazism offered an extreme
version of the competitive nationalist ideologies that had led to the war.
-
politician
a leader engaged in civil administration
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and
politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
available
obtainable or accessible and ready for use or service
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power
available to industrialized states.
-
gun
a weapon that discharges a missile at high velocity
In the late nineteenth century, the major industrialized states used their increasing economic and technological power to build up stocks of modern weapons such as machine
guns and battleships.
-
arrive
reach a destination
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had
arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
imperial
relating to or associated with an empire
In China and Vietnam the anti-
imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
troop
a group of soldiers
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
settle
become resolved, fixed, established, or quiet
On Europe’s western front the war
settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
together with
in conjunction with; combined
US supplies, troops, and money,
together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually tipped the balance against the central European powers.
-
painter
an artist who paints
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish
painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
control
power to direct or determine
Warfare became “total,” as governments took
control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
the States
North American republic containing 50 states - 48 conterminous states in North America plus Alaska in northwest North America and the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean; achieved independence in 1776
On the home fronts of all
the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
balance
harmonious arrangement or relation of parts within a whole
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually tipped the
balance against the central European powers.
-
Moscow
a city of central European Russia
Vladimir Lenin depicted in a mosaic on a wall in a
Moscow metropolitan subway station.
-
factory
a plant with facilities for manufacturing
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions
factories and other branches of production.
-
northern
situated in or oriented toward the north
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in
northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
African
a native or inhabitant of Africa
For example, West
African wood sculpture inspired the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
join
cause to become joined or linked
The Ottoman Turkish empire
joined World War I on the German and Austro-Hungarian side.
-
future
the time yet to come
It also created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary mission was to prevent
future military catastrophes.
-
peasant
one of a class of agricultural laborers
He ruthlessly seized Russian
peasant lands, thereby eliminating the last remaining bastions of capitalism.
-
railway
line that is the commercial organization responsible for operating a system of transportation for trains that pull passengers or freight
He used planning techniques pioneered by wartime governments and much of the technology invented in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from
railways to radios.
-
opposed
being resistant to
Communism, fascism, and new liberation movements
opposed to European imperialism severely challenged the liberal ideologies of Europe and the United States.
-
party
occasion on which people can assemble for social interaction
Into this political vacuum stepped the Bolshevik
Party, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-24).
-
perhaps
by chance
The Hiroshima attack killed
perhaps 80,000 people, and it ended the war with Japan.
-
weakness
a flaw
Exploiting international disunity and the
weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
apparent
clearly revealed to the mind or the senses or judgment
The dangers of this system became
apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
seriously
in a solemn manner
Governments were pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more
seriously by extending the vote to larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
strip
take off or remove
The Paris Peace Conference (1919)
stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
remaining
not used up
He ruthlessly seized Russian peasant lands, thereby eliminating the last
remaining bastions of capitalism.
-
seeking
the act of searching for something
Japan,
seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded Chinese Manchuria in 1931 and mainland China in 1937.
-
help
give assistance; be of service
The popular press
helped spread new political messages, including fascism and communism, while giving people in democratic societies broader and quicker access to information about the world.
-
launch
propel with force
In 1929, Stalin, Lenin’s successor,
launched a radical, state-led industrialization drive.
-
destroy
do away with; cause the ruin or undoing of
World War I
destroyed the empires of Germany, Austria, and Ottoman Turkey.
-
involved
connected by participation or association or use
On the home fronts of all the states
involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
society
an extended group having a distinctive cultural organization
He believed that Russia would pioneer a new and better type of
society, one that would do away with the political and economic inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
extended
fully stretched forth
The challenges to nineteenth-century traditions
extended to science and the arts.
-
group
any number of entities (members) considered as a unit
Refined cultural tastes and values, once the preserve of elite
groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
-
portrait
any likeness of a person, in any medium
The
portrait dates to the 1930s.
-
aspect
a characteristic to be considered
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all
aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
term
a limited period of time during which something lasts
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in
terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
signed
having a handwritten signature
On November 11, 1918, Germany
signed an armistice.
-
Canada
a nation in northern North America
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
-
on the other hand
(contrastive) from another point of view
On the other hand, the US, Britain, and several other European countries mobilized millions of citizens for war without compromising their democratic institutions very much.
-
international
concerning or belonging to two or more countries
Exploiting
international disunity and the weakness of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined, Germany threw off the Versailles Treaty’s penalties and restrictions and began to rearm.
-
line
a length without breadth or thickness
Soldiers carrying a wounded comrade away from the
front
lines, Western Front, France, 1917.
-
destruction
an event that completely ruins something
Millions of civilians died as well, and
destruction of infrastructure, industries, and farmland was colossal.
-
February
the month following January and preceding March
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In
February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
press
exert pressure or force to or upon
Governments were
pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by extending the vote to larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
drop
let fall to the ground
Aircraft strafed and
dropped bombs on soldiers and civilians.
-
support
the act of bearing the weight of or strengthening
Britain and France fought with the
support of both soldiers and civilians from colonies and former colonies throughout the world.
-
burden
weight to be borne or conveyed
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the
burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
intellectual
of or associated with or requiring the use of the mind
In all those regions,
intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
even
being level or straight or regular and without variation
Even so, Stalin’s brutal methods produced a powerful industrial economy.
-
violent
acting with great force or energy or emotional intensity
His non-
violent protests against British rule played a crucial role in achieving independence in 1947.
-
sovereign
a nation's ruler usually by hereditary right
New Zealand granted the vote to women in 1893, the first
sovereign state to do so.
-
nurse
one skilled in caring for young children or the sick
The League had little independent power, however, and the punitive peace treaty of 1919 ensured that Germany and Austria would continue to
nurse resentments.
-
rule
prescribed guide for conduct or action
They were left, however,
ruling a country, now the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years earlier.
-
rapid
characterized by speed
However, the strains of
rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a weak “provisional government.”
-
convinced
having a strong belief or conviction
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was
convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
conscious
having awareness of surroundings and sensations and thoughts
In psychology, Sigmund Freud showed the power of irrational forces that lurked in the human sub-
conscious.
-
committed
bound or obligated, as under a pledge to a cause or action
They also prepared for war by forging alliances that
committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
find
discover or determine the existence, presence, or fact of
Fascism
found other imitators as well, for example, in Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
developed
being changed over time, as to be stronger or more complete
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists
developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
defense
the act of defending someone or something against attack
They also prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the
defense of its allies.
-
destroyed
spoiled or ruined or demolished
World War I
destroyed the empires of Germany, Austria, and Ottoman Turkey.
-
December
the last (12th) month of the year
Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, and Japan, Hitler’s ally, attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on
December 7, 1941.
-
pressed
compacted by ironing
Governments were
pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by extending the vote to larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
divided
separated into parts or pieces
The world of 1950, however, was just as
divided and conflict-ridden, and it bristled with dangerous weapons unimaginable in 1900.
-
exchange
the act of changing one thing for another thing
More extensive cross-cultural
exchanges of artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
throne
the chair of state for a monarch, bishop, etc.
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the
throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914.
-
communication
the activity of conveying information
©Kathleen Cohen
German radio
Mass
communication and popular culture.
-
domestic
of or relating to the home
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of
domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
gas
state of matter distinguished from solid and liquid states
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and mustard
gas killed soldiers by the millions.
-
form
a perceptual structure
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the
form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
November
the month following October and preceding December
On
November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice.
-
More
English statesman who opposed Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and was imprisoned and beheaded; recalled for his concept of Utopia, the ideal state
More extensive cross-cultural exchanges of artistic ideas challenged established artistic traditions in most parts of the world.
-
movie
a form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and a sequence of images giving the illusion of continuous movement
In doing so, however, they also ensured that Soviet
movie-goers would learn about Hollywood and American values.
-
despair
a state in which all hope is lost or absent
Nazism built on the sense of
despair that World War I, the Depression, and the punitive war reparations caused among Germans.
-
bring
take something or somebody with oneself somewhere
The rail line that
brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia, today the Czech Republic.
-
take
get into one's hands
Warfare became “total,” as governments
took control of much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
October
the month following September and preceding November
On
October 1, 1949, he announced the formation of the “People’s Republic of China.”
-
despite
contemptuous disregard
Ideas item
Humans and Ideas arrow item
Despite crisis after crisis, Big Era Eight brought new creativity to science, the arts, popular culture, and political and social thought.
-
for the first time
the initial time
Perhaps
for the first time in history, popular culture, instead of being just the cultural heritage of a particular region, began to reach around the globe.
-
kill
cause to die
Machine guns, long-range artillery, and mustard gas
killed soldiers by the millions.
-
using
an act that exploits or victimizes someone
Nationalist leaders in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia became increasingly skilled at
using newspapers and radio to build mass support.
-
signal
any action or gesture that encodes a message
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war
signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
-
Japanese
of or relating to or characteristic of Japan or its people or their culture or language
French, British, or
Japanese forces seized German colonies in the Pacific and Africa.
-
non
negation of a word or group of words
His
non-violent protests against British rule played a crucial role in achieving independence in 1947.
-
play
engage in recreational activities rather than work
Civilians
played as vital a role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing number of casualties.
-
model
a representation of something, often on a smaller scale
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s
model of a fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
different
unlike in nature, quality, form, or degree
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw politics in terms of racial conflict between
different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
imagine
expect, believe, or suppose
World War I proved more horrifying than anyone could have
imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
-
reform
make changes for improvement to remove abuse and injustices
Nevertheless, nationalist movements for
reform and independence began to come together in the colonies.
-
ocean
a large body of water that is part of the hydrosphere
World War II was fought in Europe, the Soviet Union, North Africa, West Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.
-
extreme
of the greatest possible degree, extent, or intensity
Nazism offered an
extreme version of the competitive nationalist ideologies that had led to the war.
-
provide
give something useful or necessary to
In China and Vietnam the anti-imperial rhetoric of Soviet communism
provided the inspiration for the nationalist leaders Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh.
-
enemy
a personal foe
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted
enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
change
become different in some particular way
The Great War. The two world wars together were a major cause of
change in the global distribution of power.
-
neighbor
a person who lives near another
In Europe, Nazi racist belligerence and aggression against its
neighbors, first Austria and Czechoslovakia, then Poland, led Germany in 1939 into war with France and Britain.
-
ended
having come or been brought to a conclusion
The Hiroshima attack killed perhaps 80,000 people, and it
ended the war with Japan.
-
politics
the activities involved in managing a state or a government
Hitler became an advocate of fascism, an ideology that saw
politics in terms of racial conflict between different nations, championed authoritarianism, and despised liberal values.
-
side
a place within a region identified relative to a center or reference location
The conflagration showed a dark
side of the modern revolution.
-
sense
the faculty through which the external world is apprehended
Nazism built on the
sense of despair that World War I, the Depression, and the punitive war reparations caused among Germans.
-
organization
a methodical and orderly manner or approach
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political
organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
territory
a region marked off for administrative or other purposes
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman
territory in the Middle East were taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
-
August
the month following July and preceding September
Japan surrendered after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
August.
-
mission
an operation that is assigned by a higher headquarters
It also created the League of Nations, the first fledgling world deliberative body, whose primary
mission was to prevent future military catastrophes.
-
earlier
more early than; most early
They were left, however, ruling a country, now the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, that was poorer and less industrialized than it had been ten years
earlier.
-
conference
a prearranged meeting for consultation or discussion
The Paris Peace
Conference (1919) stripped Germany of its colonies and saddled it and Austria with the burden of paying reparations, that is, much of the cost of the war.
-
nevertheless
despite anything to the contrary
Nevertheless, nationalist movements for reform and independence began to come together in the colonies.
-
numbers
an illegal daily lottery
Eventually, the sheer weight of resources and human
numbers ranged against the fascist alliance made the difference.
-
institution
a custom that has been an important feature of some group
On the other hand, the US, Britain, and several other European countries mobilized millions of citizens for war without compromising their democratic
institutions very much.
-
growth
changing gradually from a simple to a more complex level
Could the machinery of economic
growth reduce the global inequalities that had helped fuel the conflicts of 1900-1950?
-
larger
large or big relative to something else
Governments were pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by extending the vote to
larger sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
vision
the ability to see
This success inspired some political leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to take up the Communist
vision of the future.
-
offer
present for acceptance or rejection
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism)
offered a second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
weak
wanting in physical strength
However, the strains of rapid economic change combined with the war, which saw a German invasion, undermined the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II. In February 1917, he was forced to abdicate and to leave the country in the hands of a
weak “provisional government.”
-
protest
a formal and solemn declaration of objection
His non-violent
protests against British rule played a crucial role in achieving independence in 1947.
-
marked
easily noticeable
The book, which became a bestseller, argued that all civilizations rise and fall and that World War I
marked the beginning of Europe’s decline.
-
audience
a gathering of spectators or listeners at a performance
Radios gave leaders access to vast
audiences, and gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
life
the organic phenomenon that distinguishes living organisms
The war also transformed the
lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
section
one of several parts or pieces that fit with others
Governments were pressed to take their own liberal rhetoric more seriously by extending the vote to larger
sections of the population and to women as well as men.
-
men
the force of workers available
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when
men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
equally
in a balanced or impartial way
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but
equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
sport
active diversion requiring physical exertion and competition
The new media also helped popularize
sports such as football and baseball.
-
Spain
a parliamentary monarchy in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula; a former colonial power
Fascism found other imitators as well, for example, in
Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
very much
to a very great degree or extent
On the other hand, the US, Britain, and several other European countries mobilized millions of citizens for war without compromising their democratic institutions
very much.
-
central
in or near an inner area
US supplies, troops, and money, together with the huge economic and agricultural resources of the British and French empires, eventually tipped the balance against the
central European powers.
-
Spanish
of or relating to or characteristic of Spain or the people of Spain
For example, West African wood sculpture inspired the
Spanish painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), and Mongolian artists incorporated traditional motifs into contemporary art forms such as photography.
-
much
great in quantity or degree or extent
Warfare became “total,” as governments took control of
much of the economy in order to mobilize their populations and resources.
-
dangerous
involving or causing risk; liable to hurt or harm
The world of 1950, however, was just as divided and conflict-ridden, and it bristled with
dangerous weapons unimaginable in 1900.
-
image
a visual representation produced on a surface
-
several
of an indefinite number more than 2 or 3 but not many
The strains and costs of compulsory industrialization were great, including a massive famine, creation of forced labor camps, and political purges that by the 1930s cost the lives of
several million people.
-
wounded
suffering from physical injury especially that suffered in battle
Soldiers carrying a
wounded comrade away from the
front lines, Western Front, France, 1917.
-
take up
turn one's interest to
This success inspired some political leaders and revolutionaries in other lands, including western European countries and their colonies, to
take up the Communist vision of the future.
-
Chinese
of or pertaining to China or its peoples or cultures
Japan, seeking to create its own empire in East Asia, invaded
Chinese Manchuria in 1931 and mainland China in 1937.
-
motion
the act of changing location from one place to another
Entirely new art forms, such as
motion pictures, radio drama, and jazz blurred the lines between elite and popular culture.
-
east
the cardinal compass point that is at 90 degrees
The Allied Powers invaded Germany from both
east and west in 1945, and Hitler died in his Berlin bunker.
-
theory
a belief that can guide behavior
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists developed the
theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
-
published
prepared and printed for distribution and sale
The historian Oswald Spengler, for example, captured this mood in a work called The Decline of the West, which he first
published in 1918.
-
relations
mutual dealings or connections or communications among persons or groups
In all those regions, intellectuals, artists, and politicians wrestled with the fundamental fact that the modern revolution had arrived in the form of European colonialism, unfavorable trade
relations, and European ideas of progress.
-
settled
established in a desired position or place; not moving about
On Europe’s western front the war
settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches only to be mowed down.
-
production
the act or process of making something
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of
production.
-
away
at a distance in space or time
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were
away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
type
a subdivision of a particular kind of thing
He believed that Russia would pioneer a new and better
type of society, one that would do away with the political and economic inequalities of the capitalist world order.
-
center
an area that is in the middle of some larger region
Weapons such as bombers and rockets brought warfare into the
centers of cities.
-
commit
engage in or perform
They also prepared for war by forging alliances that
committed each country to the defense of its allies.
-
struggle
strenuous effort
The Bolsheviks unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a civil
struggle against internal enemies, and expelled most of the country’s capitalists.
-
finding
something that is discovered
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on
finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
newspaper
a daily or weekly publication on folded sheets
Nationalist leaders in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia became increasingly skilled at using
newspapers and radio to build mass support.
-
India
a republic in the Asian subcontinent in southern Asia
In
India, the Indian National Congress, first established in 1885, became a powerful supporter of independence.
-
throughout
from first to last
Britain and France fought with the support of both soldiers and civilians from colonies and former colonies
throughout the world.
-
weight
the vertical force exerted by a mass as a result of gravity
Eventually, the sheer
weight of resources and human numbers ranged against the fascist alliance made the difference.
-
over
beyond the top or upper surface or edge
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took
over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other branches of production.
-
entire
constituting the full quantity or extent; complete
In Russia the creation of the world’s first Communist state posed a challenge to the
entire capitalist system, a challenge that would last until the 1990s.
-
protect
shield from danger, injury, destruction, or damage
To many, liberalism seemed only a veneer that
protected exploitative and incompetent governments and allowed social and economic inequities in the world to continue.
-
today
on this day as distinct from yesterday or tomorrow
The rail line that brought prisoners to the Nazi concentration camp at Terezine in northern Czechoslovakia,
today the Czech Republic.
-
well
in a good or satisfactory manner or to a high standard
These weapons worked so
well in holding defensive positions that decisive attacks were almost impossible.
-
announced
declared publicly; made widely known
On October 1, 1949, he
announced the formation of the “People’s Republic of China.”
-
all
to a complete degree or to the full or entire extent
On the home fronts of
all the states involved, the huge power concentrated in modern governments and industrial economies was harnessed for the fight.
-
vast
unusually great in size or amount or extent or scope
Radios gave leaders access to
vast audiences, and gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
-
found
food and lodging provided in addition to money
Fascism
found other imitators as well, for example, in Spain, Brazil, and Lebanon.
-
fixed
unmoving
They both undermined Isaac Newton’s model of a
fixed and predictable universe, which scientists of the nineteenth century had taken for granted.
-
advance
move forward
These women and men were determined to
advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
-
needed
necessary for relief or supply
As in other countries, huge government expenditure for weapons was just the stimulus
needed to revive the German economy.
-
June
the month following May and preceding July
The dangers of this system became apparent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in
June 1914.
-
west
the cardinal compass point that is a 270 degrees
The Allied Powers invaded Germany from both east and
west in 1945, and Hitler died in his Berlin bunker.
-
number
a concept of quantity involving zero and units
Civilians played as vital a role as soldiers and also accounted for an increasing
number of casualties.
-
under
below some quantity or limit
This meant that about one third of all humans lived
under Communist governments.
-
produce
bring forth or yield
Even so, Stalin’s brutal methods
produced a powerful industrial economy.
-
civil
of or occurring between or among citizens of the state
The Bolsheviks unilaterally pulled Russia out of the war, won a
civil struggle against internal enemies, and expelled most of the country’s capitalists.
-
second
coming next after the first in position in space or time
In Germany, Adolph Hitler’s ideology of ‘National Socialism’ (Nazism) offered a
second authoritarian alternative to liberal democracy.
-
program
a series of steps to be carried out
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy, embarked on a similar
program of nationalist rearmament.
-
murder
unlawful premeditated killing of a human being
The horror of the war found its most potent symbol in the Nazis’ systematic
murder of 9 million people, 6 million of them Jews.
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victory
a successful ending of a struggle or contest
Though communist movements made little headway in most places, the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, achieved
victory in China.
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holding
the act of retaining something
These weapons worked so well in
holding defensive positions that decisive attacks were almost impossible.
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taste
the faculty of distinguishing sweet, sour, bitter, and salty properties in the mouth
Refined cultural
tastes and values, once the preserve of elite groups, spread increasingly among the working masses.
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gift
something acquired without compensation
Radios gave leaders access to vast audiences, and
gifted speakers such as Roosevelt, Hitler, and Churchill used the new medium to mobilize whole nations for war.
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similar
having the same or nearly the same characteristics
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Hitler’s fascist ally in Italy, embarked on a
similar program of nationalist rearmament.
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branch
a division of a stem arising from the main stem of a plant
The war also transformed the lives of many women, who had to manage all aspects of domestic life when men were away and who took over men’s jobs in munitions factories and other
branches of production.
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taken
understood in a certain way; made sense of
Germany’s colonies and Ottoman territory in the Middle East were
taken over by France and Britain as “mandates” or “trusteeships” theoretically under the League of Nations.
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proved
established beyond doubt
World War I
proved more horrifying than anyone could have imagined, and it demonstrated the colossal destructive power available to industrialized states.
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just
and nothing more
As in other countries, huge government expenditure for weapons was
just the stimulus needed to revive the German economy.
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style
how something is done or how it happens
As a Marxist, Lenin had no use for nineteenth century-
style liberalism, and he was convinced that the war signaled the collapse of both capitalism and imperialism.
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develop
progress or evolve through a process of natural growth
Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, and other scientists
developed the theory of relativity and quantum physics in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
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date
the specified day of the month
The portrait
dates to the 1930s.
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ways
structure consisting of a sloping way down to the water from the place where ships are built or repaired
These women and men were determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding
ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.
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information
knowledge acquired through study or experience
The popular press helped spread new political messages, including fascism and communism, while giving people in democratic societies broader and quicker access to
information about the world.
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prepared
made ready or fit or suitable beforehand
They also
prepared for war by forging alliances that committed each country to the defense of its allies.
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only
without any others being included or involved
On Europe’s western front the war settled into a grisly, prolonged siege in which soldiers assaulted enemy trenches
only to be mowed down.
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New
used of a living language
Troops from French and British colonies in Asia and Africa, and from former colonies such as Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand fought on the British and French side.
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determined
having been learned or found especially by investigation
These women and men were
determined to advance modern technology, science, and political organization but equally set on finding ways to do it that were true to their own national traditions and aspirations.