Mongols

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  1. Mongol
    of or relating to the region of Mongolia or its people or their languages or cultures
    The Mongols ended or interrupted the great postclassical empires while extending the world network.
  2. Golden Horde
    a Mongolian army that swept over eastern Europe in the 13th century
    The armies of the Golden Horde moved westward.
  3. urban center
    a large and densely populated urban area
    In these first campaigns, the Mongols developed new tactics for capturing fortified urban centers.
  4. Yuan dynasty
    the imperial dynasty of China from 1279 to 1368
    By the time of Kubilai's death, the Yuan dynasty was weakening.
  5. Ottoman Turk
    a Turk
    A major Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 opened Asia Minor to conquest by the Ottoman Turks.
  6. Fertile Crescent
    a geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates
    Timur, a highly cultured individual from a noble, landowning clan, moved from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.
  7. Timur
    Mongolian ruler of Samarkand who led his nomadic hordes to conquer an area from Turkey to Mongolia (1336-1405)
    Later attacks by Timur broke the Mongol hold on Russia.
  8. Temujin
    Mongolian emperor whose empire stretched from the Black Sea to the Pacific Ocean (1162-1227)
    His grandson, Chinggis Khan, originally named Temujin, was a member of one of the clans disputing Mongol leadership at the end of the twelfth century.
  9. nomad
    a member of a people who have no permanent home
    The nomads of central Asia returned to center stage in world history during the thirteenth century.
  10. Eurasia
    the land mass formed by the continents of Europe and Asia
    Just when the peoples of Eurasia began to recover from the effects of Mongol expansion, a new leader, the Turk Timur-i Lang, brought new expansion.
  11. war machine
    the military forces of a nation
    Building the Mongol War Machine.
  12. musical drama
    opera in which the musical and dramatic elements are equally important; the music is appropriate to the action
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  13. nomadic
    relating to persons or groups who travel in search of food or work
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  14. Seljuk
    of or relating to the Seljuks
    A major Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 opened Asia Minor to conquest by the Ottoman Turks.
  15. khan
    a ruler or important person in some Asian countries
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  16. legal code
    a code of laws adopted by a state or nation
    A script was devised for the Mongolian language, and a legal code helped end old quarrels.
  17. tatu
    about three feet long exclusive of tail
    He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style.
  18. aftershock
    a tremor following the main tremor of an earthquake
    Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur.
  19. Turkic
    of or relating to the people who speak the Turkic language
    Victory over Khwarazm brought many Turkic horsemen into Chinggis Khan's army.
  20. social structure
    the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
    The decision inaugurated a major change in rural social structure: serfdom endured until the middle of the nineteenth century.
  21. devastate
    cause extensive destruction or ruin utterly
    Their powerful short bows, fired from horseback, were devastating weapons.
  22. trade route
    a route followed by traders (usually in caravans)
    Commerce flourished along secure trade routes.
  23. centralize
    concentrate legal power in one main governmental authority
    Sedentary civilizations became better able to centralize political power and to mobilize resources for developing superior military organization.
  24. Black Death
    the epidemic form of bubonic plague experienced during the Middle Ages when it killed nearly half the people of western Europe
    During the fourteenth century, the effect of the Black Death on nomads gave sedentary peoples numerical superiority.
  25. Ming dynasty
    the imperial dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644
    Finally, a peasant leader, Ju Yuanzhang, triumphed and founded the Ming dynasty.
  26. Confucian
    relating to Chinese philosophical teachings
    Mongol women remained aloof from Confucian Chinese culture.
  27. sedentary
    requiring sitting or little activity
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  28. bubonic plague
    the most common form of the plague in humans
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  29. C.E.
    of the period coinciding with the Christian era
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  30. bubonic
    relating to inflamed or swollen lymph nodes
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  31. social policy
    a policy of for dealing with social issues
    Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance.
  32. Samarkand
    city in southern Uzbekistan
    Timur, a highly cultured individual from a noble, landowning clan, moved from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.
  33. steppe
    an extensive plain without trees
    He established a new capital in the steppes at Karakorum and hired talented individuals from all conquered regions.
  34. horde
    a vast multitude
    The armies of the Golden Horde moved westward.
  35. incursion
    the act of entering some territory or domain
    Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe.
  36. Tatar
    a member of the Turkic-speaking people living from the Volga to the Ural Mountains (the name has been attributed to many other groups)
    They were unable to unite before the Mongols (called Tatars or Tartars by Russians).
  37. Kiev
    capital and largest city of the Ukraine
    By the thirteenth century, Kiev was in decline and Russia was divided into many petty kingdoms.
  38. artisan
    a skilled worker who practices some trade or handicraft
    In urban centers, artisans and scholars freely worked.
  39. Nestorian
    relating to Nestorius or Nestorianism
    Kubilai was interested in all religions; Buddhists, Nestorian and Latin Christians, Daoists, and Muslims were all present at court.
  40. raze
    tear down so as to make flat with the ground
    Resisting cities were razed.
  41. linkage
    the act of connecting things
    Global Connections: The Mongol Linkages.
  42. center stage
    the central area on a theater stage
    The nomads of central Asia returned to center stage in world history during the thirteenth century.
  43. Mongolian
    a member of the nomadic peoples of Mongolia
    Mongolian peoples established kingdoms in north China in the fourth and tenth centuries C.E.
  44. imperium
    supreme authority; absolute dominion
    Life under the Mongol Imperium.
  45. Eurasian
    relating to, or coming from, Europe and Asia
    After his death in 1405, Timur's empire fell apart, and the last great challenge of the steppe nomads to Eurasian civilizations ended.
  46. unify
    join or combine
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  47. cavalryman
    a soldier mounted on horseback
    Their land was protected from Mongol cavalrymen turning it into pasture, and famine relief measures were introduced.
  48. bureaucrat
    a nonelective government official
    He used the knowledge of Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats to build an administrative structure for the empire.
  49. Novgorod
    a city in northwestern Russia on the Volkhov River
    Novgorod was spared when its ruler, Alexander Nevskii, peacefully submitted, at least temporarily.
  50. interlude
    an intervening period or episode
    The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History.
  51. intermarriage
    marriage to a person belonging to a tribe or group other than your own as required by custom or law
    Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage was prohibited.
  52. Industrial Revolution
    the transformation from an agricultural to an industrial nation
    With the Industrial Revolution, sedentary dominance became permanent.
  53. mobilize
    make ready for action or use
    Sedentary civilizations became better able to centralize political power and to mobilize resources for developing superior military organization.
  54. conquest
    the act of defeating and taking control of
    Conquest: The Mongol Empire under Chinggis Khan.
  55. heartland
    the central region of a country or continent
    The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland.
  56. social organization
    the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
    The basic unit of social organization, the tribe, was divided into kin-related clans.
  57. barbarian
    a member of an uncivilized people
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  58. convergence
    the act of coming closer
    Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture.
  59. inaugurate
    commence officially
    The decision inaugurated a major change in rural social structure: serfdom endured until the middle of the nineteenth century.
  60. empire
    the domain ruled by a single authoritative sovereign
    The Mongols ended or interrupted the great postclassical empires while extending the world network.
  61. fascinate
    attract; cause to be enamored
    Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization.
  62. stimulate
    cause to act in a specified manner
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  63. ravage
    cause extensive destruction or ruin utterly
    In 1240, Kiev was taken and ravaged.
  64. China
    a communist nation that covers a vast territory in eastern Asia; the most populous country in the world
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  65. Asia Minor
    a peninsula in southwestern Asia that forms the Asian part of Turkey
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  66. loyalist
    a person who is faithful to a country, party, or cause
    Song loyalists in the south revolted.
  67. Muslim
    a believer in or follower of Islam
    He used the knowledge of Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats to build an administrative structure for the empire.
  68. civilization
    a society in an advanced state of social development
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  69. gentry
    the most powerful members of a society
    Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance.
  70. Turk
    a native or inhabitant of Turkey
    A major Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 opened Asia Minor to conquest by the Ottoman Turks.
  71. Islam
    the monotheistic religious system of Muslims
    Christian western Europe initially had been pleased by Mongol successes against Islam.
  72. serf
    (Middle Ages) a person who is bound to the land and owned by the feudal lord
    Many sought protection by becoming serfs.
  73. cultural
    relating to the shared knowledge and values of a society
    Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence.
  74. Asia
    the largest continent with 60% of the earth's population
    The nomads of central Asia returned to center stage in world history during the thirteenth century.
  75. Polo
    Venetian traveler who explored Asia in the 13th century and served Kublai Khan (1254-1324)
    The most famous was the Venetian Marco Polo.
  76. Marco Polo
    Venetian traveler who explored Asia in the 13th century and served Kublai Khan (1254-1324)
    The most famous was the Venetian Marco Polo.
  77. isolate
    place or set apart
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  78. Chinese
    of or pertaining to China or its peoples or cultures
    He used the knowledge of Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats to build an administrative structure for the empire.
  79. Islamic
    of or relating to or supporting Islamism
    First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China.
  80. dominate
    be in control
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  81. scholar
    a learned person
    In urban centers, artisans and scholars freely worked.
  82. gunpowder
    a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur in a 75:15:10 ratio which is used in gunnery, time fuses, and fireworks
    New weapons, including gunpowder and cannons, were used.
  83. formulate
    prepare according to instructions
    A revolutionary change was formulated—but not enacted—for establishing elementary education at the village level.
  84. North Africa
    an area of northern Africa between the Sahara and the Mediterranean Sea
    Hulegu, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, moved westward against Mesopotamia and North Africa.
  85. expansion
    the act of increasing in size or volume or quantity or scope
    Just when the peoples of Eurasia began to recover from the effects of Mongol expansion, a new leader, the Turk Timur-i Lang, brought new expansion.
  86. Persia
    a theocratic Islamic republic in the Middle East in western Asia; Iran was the core of the ancient empire that was known as Persia until 1935; rich in oil
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  87. Mesopotamia
    the land between the Tigris and Euphrates
    Hulegu, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, moved westward against Mesopotamia and North Africa.
  88. Java
    an island in Indonesia to the south of Borneo
    Other Mongol forces were defeated in Vietnam and Java.
  89. transmitting
    the act of sending a message
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  90. divide
    a serious disagreement between two groups of people
    The basic unit of social organization, the tribe, was divided into kin-related clans.
  91. urban
    relating to a city or densely populated area
    In these first campaigns, the Mongols developed new tactics for capturing fortified urban centers.
  92. Genoese
    a native or resident of Genoa
    The trading empires established in their dominions by Venetians and Genoese provided experience useful for later European expansion.
  93. initially
    at the beginning
    Christian western Europe initially had been pleased by Mongol successes against Islam.
  94. dedicate
    give entirely to a specific person, activity, or cause
    Secret societies dedicated to overthrowing the dynasty formed.
  95. establish
    set up or found
    Mongolian peoples established kingdoms in north China in the fourth and tenth centuries C.E.
  96. unified
    formed or joined into a whole
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  97. Ottoman
    of or relating to the Ottoman Empire or its people or its culture
    A major Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 opened Asia Minor to conquest by the Ottoman Turks.
  98. conquer
    take possession of by force, as after an invasion
    Chinggis Khan set forth to conquer the known world.
  99. upheaval
    a violent disturbance
    Nomads destroyed entire civilizations, stimulated great population movements, caused social upheavals, and facilitated cultural and economic exchanges.
  100. Tartar
    a member of the Mongolian people of central Asia who invaded Russia in the 13th century
    They were unable to unite before the Mongols (called Tatars or Tartars by Russians).
  101. numerical
    of or relating to or denoting numerals
    During the fourteenth century, the effect of the Black Death on nomads gave sedentary peoples numerical superiority.
  102. dominance
    the power or right to give orders or make decisions
    With the Industrial Revolution, sedentary dominance became permanent.
  103. vassal
    a person who owes allegiance and service to a feudal lord
    The Russians became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde, a domination lasting two and a half centuries.
  104. Venetian
    of or relating to or characteristic of Venice or its people
    The most famous was the Venetian Marco Polo.
  105. century
    a period of 100 years
    The nomads of central Asia returned to center stage in world history during the thirteenth century.
  106. astute
    marked by practical hardheaded intelligence
    The Mongols were both fearsome warriors and astute, tolerant rulers.
  107. formulated
    devised; developed according to an orderly plan
    A revolutionary change was formulated—but not enacted—for establishing elementary education at the village level.
  108. prohibit
    command against
    Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage was prohibited.
  109. bolster
    support and strengthen
    The Mongols also bolstered the position of artisans and merchants who previously not had received high status.
  110. flourish
    grow vigorously
    Commerce flourished along secure trade routes.
  111. decline
    grow worse
    In the twelfth century, Kabul Khan defeated a Qin army, but Mongol organization declined after his death.
  112. ethnic
    distinctive of the ways of living of a group of people
    Beneath them came first the north Chinese, and then ethnic Chinese and peoples of the south.
  113. civil service
    the government workforce exclusive of military service
    Kubilai refused to reestablish exams for the civil service.
  114. Reformation
    a religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  115. illiterate
    not able to read or write
    Chinggis Khan, though illiterate, was open to new ideas and wanted to create a peaceful empire.
  116. Tibet
    an autonomous region of the Peoples Republic of China
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  117. elect
    choose by a vote for an office or membership
    Leaders were elected by free men.
  118. cultured
    marked by refinement in taste and manners
    Timur, a highly cultured individual from a noble, landowning clan, moved from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.
  119. tolerant
    showing or characterized by broad-mindedness
    The Mongols were both fearsome warriors and astute, tolerant rulers.
  120. dominated
    controlled or ruled by superior authority or power
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  121. Middle East
    the area around the eastern Mediterranean
    Satisfied with their rich conquests in Asia and the Middle East, the Mongols did not return to Europe.
  122. gender
    properties that distinguish organisms on the basis of sex
    Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture.
  123. Russia
    a federation in northeastern Europe and northern Asia
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  124. tribute
    something given or done as an expression of esteem
    Cities that submitted avoided this fate; tribute ensured safety.
  125. famine
    a severe shortage of food resulting in starvation and death
    Their land was protected from Mongol cavalrymen turning it into pasture, and famine relief measures were introduced.
  126. uncouth
    lacking refinement or cultivation or taste
    The scholar-gentry regarded Mongols as uncouth barbarians with policies endangering Chinese traditions.
  127. culture
    all the knowledge and values shared by a society
    Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization.
  128. Russian
    of or pertaining to or characteristic of Russia or its people or culture or language
    They were unable to unite before the Mongols (called Tatars or Tartars by Russians).
  129. Kabul
    the capital and largest city of Afghanistan
    In the twelfth century, Kabul Khan defeated a Qin army, but Mongol organization declined after his death.
  130. unit
    a single undivided whole
    The basic unit of social organization, the tribe, was divided into kin-related clans.
  131. facilitate
    make easier
    Nomads destroyed entire civilizations, stimulated great population movements, caused social upheavals, and facilitated cultural and economic exchanges.
  132. resume
    take up or begin anew
    Hulegu, faced with other threats to his rule, including the conversion of the khan of the Golden Horde to Islam, did not resume the campaign.
  133. invade
    march aggressively into a territory by military force
    Batu, Chinggis Khan's grandson, invaded in 1236 and defeated Russian armies one by one.
  134. domination
    power to defeat
    The Russians became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde, a domination lasting two and a half centuries.
  135. destroy
    do away with; cause the ruin or undoing of
    Cities that resisted were utterly destroyed; their inhabitants were killed or made slaves.
  136. develop
    progress or evolve through a process of natural growth
    In these first campaigns, the Mongols developed new tactics for capturing fortified urban centers.
  137. include
    have as a part; be made up out of
    The armies, divided into fighting units of 10,000 (tumens), included both heavy and light cavalry.
  138. code
    a set of rules or principles or laws
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  139. Moscow
    a city of central European Russia
    Some cities, especially Moscow, benefited from the increased commercial possibilities brought by Mongol rule.
  140. Buddhist
    one who follows the teachings of Buddha
    Kubilai was interested in all religions; Buddhists, Nestorian and Latin Christians, Daoists, and Muslims were all present at court.
  141. transmit
    send from one person or place to another
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  142. devise
    arrange by systematic planning and united effort
    A script was devised for the Mongolian language, and a legal code helped end old quarrels.
  143. eclipse
    the phenomenon when one celestial body obscures another
    In Depth: The Eclipse of the Nomadic War Machine.
  144. Vietnam
    a communist state in Indochina on the South China Sea
    Other Mongol forces were defeated in Vietnam and Java.
  145. adopt
    take into one's family
    He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style.
  146. confederation
    the state of being allied
    Great confederations were organized for defensive and offensive operations.
  147. organization
    a methodical and orderly manner or approach
    The basic unit of social organization, the tribe, was divided into kin-related clans.
  148. Baghdad
    capital and largest city of Iraq
    Baghdad was destroyed in 1258.
  149. prosper
    make steady progress
    Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money.
  150. retain
    secure and keep for possible future use or application
    Mongol religious ceremonies and customs were retained.
  151. status
    the condition or someone or something at a particular time
    The Mongols also bolstered the position of artisans and merchants who previously not had received high status.
  152. aloof
    distant, cold, or detached in manner
    Mongol women remained aloof from Confucian Chinese culture.
  153. peasant
    one of a class of agricultural laborers
    Peasants had to meet demands from both their own princes and the Mongols.
  154. structure
    a complex entity made of many parts
    He used the knowledge of Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats to build an administrative structure for the empire.
  155. reconcile
    come to terms
    The ethnic Chinese, the vast majority of Kubilai's subjects, were never reconciled to Mongol rule.
  156. retained
    continued in your keeping or use or memory
    Mongol religious ceremonies and customs were retained.
  157. dominion
    control or power through legal authority
    The trading empires established in their dominions by Venetians and Genoese provided experience useful for later European expansion.
  158. emerge
    come out into view, as from concealment
    A new social structure emerged in China.
  159. bondage
    the state of being under the control of another person
    Russia in Bondage.
  160. core
    the center of an object
    The incursions of small numbers of militarily skilled nomads into the civilized cores have had a major effect on world history.
  161. navy
    the branch of armed services that conducts operations at sea
    The Mongols developed a substantial navy that helped conquest and increased commerce.
  162. transportation
    the act of moving something from one location to another
    Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money.
  163. Renaissance
    period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  164. kingdom
    the domain ruled by a monarch
    Mongolian peoples established kingdoms in north China in the fourth and tenth centuries C.E.
  165. legacy
    a gift of personal property by will
    The legacy of the Mongol period was both complex and durable.
  166. submit
    yield to the control of another
    Cities that submitted avoided this fate; tribute ensured safety.
  167. resource
    aid or support that may be drawn upon when needed
    Sedentary civilizations became better able to centralize political power and to mobilize resources for developing superior military organization.
  168. peaceful
    not disturbed by strife or turmoil or war
    Peaceful contacts over long distances opened.
  169. campaign
    related operations aimed at achieving a particular goal
    Another unit, employing spies, secured accurate information for campaigns.
  170. center
    an area that is in the middle of some larger region
    The nomads of central Asia returned to center stage in world history during the thirteenth century.
  171. enforce
    compel to behave in a certain way
    Harsh discipline, enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct.
  172. overthrow
    reject or overturn a decision or an argument
    Secret societies dedicated to overthrowing the dynasty formed.
  173. established
    brought about or set up or accepted
    Mongolian peoples established kingdoms in north China in the fourth and tenth centuries C.E.
  174. European
    of or relating to or characteristic of Europe
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  175. significantly
    in an important manner
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  176. resist
    withstand the force of something
    Cities that resisted were utterly destroyed; their inhabitants were killed or made slaves.
  177. pasture
    a field covered with grass and suitable for grazing
    Their land was protected from Mongol cavalrymen turning it into pasture, and famine relief measures were introduced.
  178. weapon
    any instrument used in fighting or hunting
    Their powerful short bows, fired from horseback, were devastating weapons.
  179. Beijing
    capital of the People's Republic of China in the Hebei province in northeastern China; 2nd largest Chinese city
    He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style.
  180. enforced
    compelled to behave in a certain way
    Harsh discipline, enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct.
  181. destructive
    causing damage
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  182. dominant
    most frequent or common
    Men held dominant leadership positions; women held considerable influence within the family.
  183. temporarily
    for a limited time only; not permanently
    Novgorod was spared when its ruler, Alexander Nevskii, peacefully submitted, at least temporarily.
  184. expand
    extend in one or more directions
    Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money.
  185. challenge
    a call to engage in a contest or fight
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  186. Hungary
    a republic in central Europe
    When the Mongols moved westward into Hungary, western Europeans had real reason for concern.
  187. product
    an artifact that has been created by someone or some process
    Mongol territory was a bridge between the civilizations of the Eastas products and ideas moved among civilized and nomadic peoples.
  188. expanded
    increased in extent or size or bulk or scope
    Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money.
  189. allies
    an coalition of nations joining to fight a common enemy
    The Mongols were at the top; their nomadic and Islamic allies were directly below them.
  190. major
    greater in scope or effect
    The decision inaugurated a major change in rural social structure: serfdom endured until the middle of the nineteenth century.
  191. despise
    look down on with disdain or disgust
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  192. minor
    inferior in number or size or amount
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  193. Europe
    the 2nd smallest continent
    Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe.
  194. rebel
    someone who exhibits independence in thought and action
    Rival rebels fought each other.
  195. award
    give, especially as an honor
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  196. region
    the extended spatial location of something
    He established a new capital in the steppes at Karakorum and hired talented individuals from all conquered regions.
  197. corrupt
    dishonest or immoral or evasive
    Kubilai’s successors lacked talent, and the Yuan administration became corrupt.
  198. administrative
    responsible for managing the affairs of a group of people
    He used the knowledge of Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats to build an administrative structure for the empire.
  199. forbid
    command against
    Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage was prohibited.
  200. conversion
    the act of changing from one use or function to another
    Hulegu, faced with other threats to his rule, including the conversion of the khan of the Golden Horde to Islam, did not resume the campaign.
  201. actress
    a female actor
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  202. ensure
    make certain of
    Cities that submitted avoided this fate; tribute ensured safety.
  203. Black
    British chemist who identified carbon dioxide and who formulated the concepts of specific heat and latent heat (1728-1799)
    During the fourteenth century, the effect of the Black Death on nomads gave sedentary peoples numerical superiority.
  204. plague
    any large-scale calamity
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  205. fertile
    capable of reproducing
    Timur, a highly cultured individual from a noble, landowning clan, moved from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.
  206. kin
    a person related to another or others
    The basic unit of social organization, the tribe, was divided into kin-related clans.
  207. isolated
    remote and separate physically or socially
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  208. protect
    shield from danger, injury, destruction, or damage
    Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization.
  209. increase
    a process of becoming larger or longer or more numerous
    Some cities, especially Moscow, benefited from the increased commercial possibilities brought by Mongol rule.
  210. prohibited
    forbidden by law
    Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage was prohibited.
  211. vast
    unusually great in size or amount or extent or scope
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  212. territory
    a region marked off for administrative or other purposes
    Mongol territory was a bridge between the civilizations of the Eastas products and ideas moved among civilized and nomadic peoples.
  213. petty
    small and of little importance
    By the thirteenth century, Kiev was in decline and Russia was divided into many petty kingdoms.
  214. accurate
    characterized by perfect conformity to fact or truth
    Another unit, employing spies, secured accurate information for campaigns.
  215. provide
    give something useful or necessary to
    Muslim lands provided some of the most favored arrivals; they were included in the social order just below the Mongols.
  216. substantial
    real; having a material or factual existence
    The Mongols developed a substantial navy that helped conquest and increased commerce.
  217. revolutionary
    markedly new or introducing radical change
    A revolutionary change was formulated—but not enacted—for establishing elementary education at the village level.
  218. machine
    a mechanical or electrical device that transmits energy
    Building the Mongol War Machine.
  219. negative
    characterized by denial or opposition or resistance
    Although much of their effect was negative, the Mongol occupation was very important in Russian history.
  220. introduce
    bring something new to an environment
    Their land was protected from Mongol cavalrymen turning it into pasture, and famine relief measures were introduced.
  221. rural
    living in or characteristic of farming or country life
    The decision inaugurated a major change in rural social structure: serfdom endured until the middle of the nineteenth century.
  222. formidable
    extremely impressive in strength or excellence
    The Mongols were the most formidable nomadic challenge to the sedentary civilized civilizations since the first century C.E.
  223. harsh
    disagreeable to the senses
    Harsh discipline, enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct.
  224. brief
    of short duration or distance
    The Mongol interlude in China was too brief, and Mongol numbers too small, to change Confucian patterns.
  225. decade
    a period of 10 years
    He presided over further Mongol conquests for nearly a decade.
  226. pattern
    a repeated design, structure, or arrangement
    The Mongol interlude in China was too brief, and Mongol numbers too small, to change Confucian patterns.
  227. policy
    a plan of action adopted by an individual or social group
    Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance.
  228. employ
    put into service
    Another unit, employing spies, secured accurate information for campaigns.
  229. contact
    the act of touching physically
    Peaceful contacts over long distances opened.
  230. effect
    a phenomenon that is caused by some previous phenomenon
    Although much of their effect was negative, the Mongol occupation was very important in Russian history.
  231. capital
    a large alphabetic character used in writing or printing
    He established a new capital in the steppes at Karakorum and hired talented individuals from all conquered regions.
  232. actor
    a performer in theater, television, or film
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  233. extend
    stretch out over a distance, space, time, or scope
    The Mongols ended or interrupted the great postclassical empires while extending the world network.
  234. trade
    the commercial exchange of goods and services
    Commerce flourished along secure trade routes.
  235. Iraq
    a republic in the Middle East in western Asia
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  236. offensive
    unpleasant or disgusting especially to the senses
    Great confederations were organized for defensive and offensive operations.
  237. recover
    regain or make up for
    Just when the peoples of Eurasia began to recover from the effects of Mongol expansion, a new leader, the Turk Timur-i Lang, brought new expansion.
  238. complex
    complicated in structure
    The legacy of the Mongol period was both complex and durable.
  239. stretch
    extend one's limbs or muscles, or the entire body
    At the death of Chinggis Khan in 1227, the Mongols ruled an empire stretching from Persia to the North China Sea.
  240. reduce
    make smaller
    Tax and labor burdens were reduced.
  241. lead
    take somebody somewhere
    Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, they brought central Asia, China, Persia, Tibet, Iraq, Asia Minor, and southern Russia under their control and dominated most of Asia for one and a half centuries.
  242. influence
    a power to affect persons or events
    Men held dominant leadership positions; women held considerable influence within the family.
  243. threat
    declaration of an intention to inflict harm on another
    Hulegu, faced with other threats to his rule, including the conversion of the khan of the Golden Horde to Islam, did not resume the campaign.
  244. Japan
    a constitutional monarchy occupying the Japanese Archipelago
    Mongol expeditions of 1274 and 1280 against Japan failed.
  245. formal
    in accord with established conventions and requirements
    Harsh discipline, enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct.
  246. dispute
    the act of coming into conflict
    His grandson, Chinggis Khan, originally named Temujin, was a member of one of the clans disputing Mongol leadership at the end of the twelfth century.
  247. capture
    seize as if by hunting, snaring, or trapping
    In these first campaigns, the Mongols developed new tactics for capturing fortified urban centers.
  248. endure
    undergo or be subjected to
    The decision inaugurated a major change in rural social structure: serfdom endured until the middle of the nineteenth century.
  249. level
    a relative position or degree of value in a graded group
    Both groups dominated the highest levels of the administration.
  250. network
    an open fabric woven together at regular intervals
    The Mongols ended or interrupted the great postclassical empires while extending the world network.
  251. administration
    the act of governing or exercising authority
    Both groups dominated the highest levels of the administration.
  252. preserve
    keep in safety and protect from harm, loss, or destruction
    As his conquests continued, Kubilai attempted to preserve the distinction between Mongols and Chinese.
  253. measure
    determine the dimensions of something or somebody
    Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization.
  254. internal
    located inward
    His rule did not increase commercial expansion, cross-cultural exchanges, or internal peace.
  255. succession
    the action or process of taking over an office or position
    However, Europe escaped more serious invasions when the death of Ogedei and the resulting succession struggle forced Batu to withdraw.
  256. victory
    a successful ending of a struggle or contest
    Victory over Khwarazm brought many Turkic horsemen into Chinggis Khan's army.
  257. military
    the armed forces of a nation
    Their example influenced military and political organization.
  258. talent
    natural abilities or qualities
    Kubilai’s successors lacked talent, and the Yuan administration became corrupt.
  259. freedom
    the power to act, speak, or think without being controlled
    They refused to adopt foot binding and retained rights to property and control in the household, as well as freedom of movement.
  260. display
    something intended to communicate a particular impression
    They gained their positions through displays of courage and diplomatic skills and maintained power as long as they were successful.
  261. occupation
    the principal activity in one's life to earn money
    Although much of their effect was negative, the Mongol occupation was very important in Russian history.
  262. drama
    a work intended for performance by actors on a stage
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  263. global
    involving the entire earth
    Global Connections: The Mongol Linkages.
  264. individual
    being or characteristic of a single thing or person
    He established a new capital in the steppes at Karakorum and hired talented individuals from all conquered regions.
  265. court
    an assembly to conduct judicial business
    He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style.
  266. tradition
    a specific practice of long standing
    The scholar-gentry regarded Mongols as uncouth barbarians with policies endangering Chinese traditions.
  267. North
    the region of the United States lying to the north of the Mason-Dixon line
    At the death of Chinggis Khan in 1227, the Mongols ruled an empire stretching from Persia to the North China Sea.
  268. cavalry
    troops trained to fight on horseback
    The armies, divided into fighting units of 10,000 (tumens), included both heavy and light cavalry.
  269. depth
    the extent downward or backward or inward
    In Depth: The Eclipse of the Nomadic War Machine.
  270. Christian
    a religious person who believes Jesus is the savior
    Christian western Europe initially had been pleased by Mongol successes against Islam.
  271. ceremony
    a formal event performed on a special occasion
    Mongol religious ceremonies and customs were retained.
  272. route
    an established line of travel or access
    Commerce flourished along secure trade routes.
  273. land
    the solid part of the earth's surface
    Muslim lands provided some of the most favored arrivals; they were included in the social order just below the Mongols.
  274. distinction
    a discrimination between things as different
    As his conquests continued, Kubilai attempted to preserve the distinction between Mongols and Chinese.
  275. musical
    characterized by vocal or instrumental sound
    Mongol patronage stimulated popular entertainment, especially musical drama, and awarded higher status to formerly despised actors and actresses.
  276. role
    the actions and activities assigned to a person or group
    Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture.
  277. burden
    weight to be carried or borne
    Tax and labor burdens were reduced.
  278. industrial
    of or relating to commercial enterprise
    With the Industrial Revolution, sedentary dominance became permanent.
  279. maintain
    keep in a certain state, position, or activity
    They gained their positions through displays of courage and diplomatic skills and maintained power as long as they were successful.
  280. permanent
    continuing or enduring without marked change in status
    With the Industrial Revolution, sedentary dominance became permanent.
  281. create
    bring into existence
    Chinggis Khan, though illiterate, was open to new ideas and wanted to create a peaceful empire.
  282. Alexander
    king of Macedon
    Novgorod was spared when its ruler, Alexander Nevskii, peacefully submitted, at least temporarily.
  283. attack
    an offensive against an enemy
    They next attacked the Qin Empire established by the Jurchens.
  284. concern
    something that interests you because it is important
    When the Mongols moved westward into Hungary, western Europeans had real reason for concern.
  285. remain
    continue in a place, position, or situation
    Mongols remained active in the region through most of the fifteenth century, but from the end of the fourteenth century, Moscow was the center of political power in Russia.
  286. expedition
    an organized group of people undertaking a journey
    Mongol expeditions of 1274 and 1280 against Japan failed.
  287. superior
    of high quality or performance
    Sedentary civilizations became better able to centralize political power and to mobilize resources for developing superior military organization.
  288. triumph
    a successful ending of a struggle or contest
    Finally, a peasant leader, Ju Yuanzhang, triumphed and founded the Ming dynasty.
  289. skill
    an ability that has been acquired by training
    They gained their positions through displays of courage and diplomatic skills and maintained power as long as they were successful.
  290. Egypt
    a republic in northeastern Africa known as the United Arab Republic until 1971; site of an ancient civilization that flourished from 2600 to 30 BC
    The Mongol advance halted in 1260 when the Mamluks of Egypt defeated the Mongols.
  291. Latin
    any dialect of the language of ancient Rome
    Kubilai was interested in all religions; Buddhists, Nestorian and Latin Christians, Daoists, and Muslims were all present at court.
  292. labor
    any piece of work that is undertaken or attempted
    Tax and labor burdens were reduced.
  293. operation
    process or manner of functioning
    Great confederations were organized for defensive and offensive operations.
  294. city
    a large and densely populated urban area
    Cities that resisted were utterly destroyed; their inhabitants were killed or made slaves.
  295. benefit
    something that aids or promotes well-being
    Some cities, especially Moscow, benefited from the increased commercial possibilities brought by Mongol rule.
  296. education
    activities that impart knowledge or skill
    A revolutionary change was formulated—but not enacted—for establishing elementary education at the village level.
  297. artist
    person whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination
    The openness of Mongol rulers to outside ideas, and their patronage, drew scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers from many regions.
  298. lack
    the state of needing something that is absent or unavailable
    Kubilai’s successors lacked talent, and the Yuan administration became corrupt.
  299. revolution
    a single complete turn
    With the Industrial Revolution, sedentary dominance became permanent.
  300. supreme
    greatest in status or authority or power
    After defeating his rivals, he was elected supreme ruler (khagan) of all Mongol tribes in 1206.
  301. division
    the act of partitioning
    The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire.
  302. active
    characterized by energetic movement
    Mongols remained active in the region through most of the fifteenth century, but from the end of the fourteenth century, Moscow was the center of political power in Russia.
  303. consequence
    a phenomenon that is caused by some previous phenomenon
    An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.
  304. legal
    established by or founded upon law or official rules
    A script was devised for the Mongolian language, and a legal code helped end old quarrels.
  305. despite
    contemptuous disregard
    Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization.
  306. Africa
    the second largest continent
    Hulegu, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, moved westward against Mesopotamia and North Africa.
  307. majority
    the main part
    The ethnic Chinese, the vast majority of Kubilai's subjects, were never reconciled to Mongol rule.
  308. election
    a vote choosing the winner of a position or political office
    The Mongol advance into China resumed after Ogedei's election.
  309. struggle
    strenuous effort
    However, Europe escaped more serious invasions when the death of Ogedei and the resulting succession struggle forced Batu to withdraw.
  310. supply
    circulate or distribute or equip with
    Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money.
  311. career
    the particular occupation for which you are trained
    The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan.
  312. civil
    of or occurring between or among citizens of the state
    Kubilai refused to reestablish exams for the civil service.
  313. sought
    that is looked for
    Many sought protection by becoming serfs.
  314. India
    a republic in the Asian subcontinent in southern Asia
    Timur, a highly cultured individual from a noble, landowning clan, moved from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.
  315. development
    a process in which something passes to a different stage
    Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation.
  316. entire
    constituting the full quantity or extent; complete
    Nomads destroyed entire civilizations, stimulated great population movements, caused social upheavals, and facilitated cultural and economic exchanges.
  317. possession
    anything owned
    The Mongols are often portrayed as barbarians and destructive conquerors, but generally in their vast possessions peoples lived in peace, enjoyed religious tolerance, and had a unified law code.
  318. member
    anything that belongs to a set or class
    His grandson, Chinggis Khan, originally named Temujin, was a member of one of the clans disputing Mongol leadership at the end of the twelfth century.
  319. economic
    of or relating to production and management of wealth
    Nomads destroyed entire civilizations, stimulated great population movements, caused social upheavals, and facilitated cultural and economic exchanges.
  320. conduct
    the way a person behaves toward other people
    Harsh discipline, enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct.
  321. West
    the countries of Europe and North America and South America
    The Mongol Drive to the West.
  322. considerable
    large in number, amount, extent, or degree
    Men held dominant leadership positions; women held considerable influence within the family.
  323. style
    how something is done or how it happens
    He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style.
  324. population
    the people who inhabit a territory or state
    Nomads destroyed entire civilizations, stimulated great population movements, caused social upheavals, and facilitated cultural and economic exchanges.
  325. train
    educate for a future role or function
    Mongol males were trained from youth to ride, hunt, and fight.
  326. local
    of or belonging to or characteristic of a particular area
    Famines stimulated local risings.
  327. receive
    get something; come into possession of
    The Mongols also bolstered the position of artisans and merchants who previously not had received high status.
  328. authority
    the power or right to give orders or make decisions
    With the fall of the Abbasid dynasty, Islam had lost its central authority; consequently much of its civilization was devastated.
  329. property
    something owned
    They refused to adopt foot binding and retained rights to property and control in the household, as well as freedom of movement.
  330. attempt
    make an effort
    As his conquests continued, Kubilai attempted to preserve the distinction between Mongols and Chinese.
  331. language
    a means of communicating by the use of sounds or symbols
    A script was devised for the Mongolian language, and a legal code helped end old quarrels.
  332. experience
    the content of observation or participation in an event
    The trading empires established in their dominions by Venetians and Genoese provided experience useful for later European expansion.
  333. period
    an amount of time
    The legacy of the Mongol period was both complex and durable.
  334. town
    an urban area with a fixed boundary that is smaller than a city
    It grew at the expense of nearby towns and profited as tribute collector for the khans.
Created on Tue Nov 12 17:10:14 EST 2013

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