Psychology

Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience.

"CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials".

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper.

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]

In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[44]
[edit]Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology) and Cognitive psychology


Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn.

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanism
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrial–organizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
...

Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.
[edit]Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology.

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper.

Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.

The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
[edit]Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment


Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64]
Experimental psychological res...

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[21]

Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.

[edit]Subfields

Main article: Subfields of psychology
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
[edit]Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neur...

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanism
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrial–organizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
...

Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
[edit]Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment


Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64]
Experimental psychological res...

Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables.

Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model.

Main articles: Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper.

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]

Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.

[edit]Subfields

Main article: Subfields of psychology
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
[edit]Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neurops...

Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.
[edit]Qualitative and descriptive research


Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.

One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[78]

In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of factor analysis.

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanism
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrial–organizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
4.4 Lon...

In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable).

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology.

Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W.

Although Wundt, himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in early American psychology, was a structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.
[edit]Functionalism
Main article: Functional psychology
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James.

Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
[edit]Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment


Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64]
Experimental psychological res...

Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud.

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanism
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrial–organizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
...

Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.
[edit]Developmental
Main article: Developmental psychology


A baby with a book
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age.

Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson.[58]

Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference between classical conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[31][32]

Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious.

Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.

Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules.

Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider the unconscious mind.[7]

In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable).

The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[36]
[edit]Humanism
Main article: Humanistic psychology


Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[37]

Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors.

An early model proposed by Hans Eysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations.

In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist.

Association for Psychological Science Observer (September 2007)
^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.

Psychology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Psychology

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It is opposed to cognitivist approaches.
[edit]See also

Psychology portal
Mind and Brain portal
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List of psychologists
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[edit]References

^ "How does the APA define "psychology"?".

Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of factor analysis.

Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships.

Known as the "father of experimental psychology",[17] he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.[17]

Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment.

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper.

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.

Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals).

Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study.

In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.
[edit]Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form o...

Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[29]

The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[36]
[edit]Humanism
Main article: Humanistic psychology


Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[37]

Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting[citation needed] or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.

"CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials".

Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease.
[edit]Clinical


Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families, couples, or small groups.

Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.

Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
[edit]Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psych...

Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.

[edit]Subfields

Main article: Subfields of psychology
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
[edit]Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neurops...

Assuming both, that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-shaped behaviors.

A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
[edit]Survey questionnaires
Main article: Statistical survey
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a w...

Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline,[26] whereas Eysenck said that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data.

The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[33]

With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines.

Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[33]

In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist.

Although Wundt, himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in early American psychology, was a structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.
[edit]Functionalism
Main article: Functional psychology
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James.

Psychology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Psychology

History Subfields
Basic science
Abnormal Biological Cognitive Comparative Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Personality Positive Social
Applied science
Applied behavior analysis Clinical Community Consumer Educational Health Industrial and organizational Legal Military Occupational health Political Religion School Sport
Lists
Disciplines Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychothera...

The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level.

Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.
[edit]Qualitative and descriptive research


Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.

Main article: Naturalistic observation
Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct observational studies of ongoing human social, professional, and family life.

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]

Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy.

"The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis".

The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

9–13. Faculty.washington.edu
^ a b June 2008 study by the American Psychoanalytic Association, as reported in the New York Times, "Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department" by Patricia Cohen, November 25, 2007.

Greaves, D.W.

In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.
[edit]Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form o...

The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[45]

It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.[81]

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanism
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrial–organizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
4.4 Lon...

Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy.

Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand. ion School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments.

In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[44]
[edit]Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology) and Cognitive psychology


Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn.

Psychology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Psychology

History Subfields
Basic science
Abnormal Biological Cognitive Comparative Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Personality Positive Social
Applied science
Applied behavior analysis Clinical Community Consumer Educational Health Industrial and organizational Legal Military Occupational health Political Religion School Sport
Lists
Disciplines Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychothera...

Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning.

Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[82]

Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice.

Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
[edit]Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psych...

In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.
[edit]Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form o...

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]

In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.[75]
[edit]Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76]

An early model proposed by Hans Eysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,[28] while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[27]
[edit]Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism


Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction.

English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain.

All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies.

"The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change".

The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression.

Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements.

The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.

Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson.[58]

Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.

Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud.

Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment will be included in the forthcoming DSM-V.
[edit]Social
Main article: Social psychology
See also: Social psychology (sociology)


Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.

Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.

In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.[75]
[edit]Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76]

Psychologists often use the crossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.
[edit]Observation in natural settings


Phineas P. Gage survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior.[65]

Oxford University Press 2009.

The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.
[edit]Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form o...

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists.

Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments.

The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-Lyer illusion.
[edit]Critical psychology
Main article: Critical psychology
Critical psychology is a sub-discipline aimed at evaluating mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology.

Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[23][24]

"The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis".

The Scientific Re-view of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70–79
^ "SRMHP: Our Raison d'Être".

While often employing deductive–nomological reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations.

^ Neuringer, A.: "Melioration and Self-Experimentation" Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Board in 1966, and in 1974 ad
^ Sherwin, C.M.;

The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.[12]

Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning.

English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain.

An early model proposed by Hans Eysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers.

In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties."

The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex; Damásio, A. (1999).

Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.[25]

With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines.

The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level.

Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[52][53][54][55][56]
[edit]Cognitive
Main article: Cognitive psychology
Green Red Blue
Purple Blue Purple
Blue Purple Red
Green Purple Green
The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second.

Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements.

Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements.

Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[29]

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity.

Perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are areas of research.

^ Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis.

Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
[edit]Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psych...

Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study.

Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
[edit]Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psych...

Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
[edit]Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment


Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64]
Experimental psychological res...

Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[42] and he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[43]

Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy.

A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
[edit]Survey questionnaires
Main article: Statistical survey
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a w...

Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society 2:327–347 (Republished in Macmillan 2000).

The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[36]
[edit]Humanism
Main article: Humanistic psychology


Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[37]

Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.[85]
[edit]Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias.[86][87][88]

In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.[75]
[edit]Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76]

The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[45]

Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[82]

As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders were of a physical, rather than divine, nature.[16]
[edit]Structuralism
Main article: Structuralism (psychology)
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting.

Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.

^ Seidner, Stanley S. (June 10, 2009) "A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology".

Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),[14] as the first significant body of work in the West to be rich in psychological thought.[15]

Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[29]

New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc.
^ Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967).

Statistically significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples.[73]

Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.

Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.

Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.

These methods include testing (e.g., the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation.
[edit]Computational modeling


The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confederate.

Cambridge University Press, New York.

About Biomedical Research: Faq".

Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson.[58]

Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material.

Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors.

Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.[25]

Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions.

"The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change".

Psychology
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"The meaning of eclecticism: New survey and analysis of components".

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]

These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report.

In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties."

Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection.

Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique[69] implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics.

With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[50][51]

Creswell (2003) identifies five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory.

These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report.

Main article: Naturalistic observation
Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct observational studies of ongoing human social, professional, and family life.

Bergin, A.E.;

These methods include testing (e.g., the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation.
[edit]Computational modeling


The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confederate.

House of Cards – Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on Myth.

Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[23][24]

Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level etc.[66]

Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.
[edit]Qualitative and descriptive research


Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.

Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease.
[edit]Clinical


Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families, couples, or small groups.

Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[29]

^ For example, scientists have related brain structures to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression.

Ordinary Ecstasy: The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[21]

Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, Psychologists, on the Internet at bls.gov (visited July 08, 2010).

^ Beveridge, A. (2002).

Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F.

Qualitative researchers[63] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[21]

‘’Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses Filiales’’, 99, 1155-1157
^ Skinner, B. F. (1932) ‘’The Behavior of Organisms’’
^ a b Schlinger, H.D.

Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[83]

University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of research subjects.

It is opposed to cognitivist approaches.
[edit]See also

Psychology portal
Mind and Brain portal
Philosophy portal
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List of psychologists
List of psychology organizations
List of important publications in psychology
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[edit]References

^ "How does the APA define "psychology"?".

By focusing on the evolution of psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
[edit]Industrial–organizational
Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I–O) applies psychological concepts and methods ...

Psychologists often use the crossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.
[edit]Observation in natural settings


Phineas P. Gage survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior.[65]

^ Schulz, K.F.;

"The Truth Wears Off".

The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia.