The TOEFL Exam: The Language of the Test: List 3

Analysis goes beyond mere summary: it involves breaking an argument down and figuring out how the pieces work together.

This word has multiple meanings that could show up on a standardized test. If the test mentions an argument's or passage's one and only conclusion, it is probably referring to the final paragraph of the passage. If you see this word in its plural form, conclusions, it usually indicates the logical positions or opinions you can draw from an argument.

If a word choice or example reflects a particular idea, it supports or agrees with that idea. Thinking about how a mirror reflects an image may help you remember the meaning of this word. Another meaning of reflect is to think about something deeply; in a passage, a writer might reflect on a certain topic.

An argument is a text or reading passage that advances a claim and supports that claim with evidence.

On reading comprehension tests, claim most likely refers to an author's main argument — what the writer is trying to persuade you to believe. There could be more than one claim in an argument, but reading passages will most likely have one central (or main) claim that is supported by different types of evidence.

The adjective academic describes the kinds of things you learn or study in school. Reading passages on the TOEFL Exam will be similar to the kinds of readings you'll encounter in academic contexts. On the Speaking and Listening Sections of the exam, you will also listen and respond to academic lectures.

When a teacher gives a long talk explaining some topic, that's a lecture. During the Listening and Speaking Sections of the TOEFL exam, you may be asked to listen and respond to a part of an academic lecture.

On the Listening Section of the TOEFL Exam, you will listen and respond to conversations between English speakers. A conversation is a discussion between two or more people.

Your response is the way you reply to a question. For the Speaking Section of the TOEFL Exam, you will record spoken responses. On the Writing Section, you will provide written responses to questions.

Evidence is not just the stuff you collect at a crime scene! On standardized tests, textual evidence is information that supports an argument's central claim. It could take the form of examples, statistics, facts, etc.

To criticize is to be critical, to pick something apart and to identify its weak points. This is definitely a verb with a negative connotation. If an author is out to criticize, chances are he or she is using strong, harsh language.

To demonstrate is to show. The purpose of a passage could be to demonstrate a concept or a character trait, for example. The purpose of a chart could be to demonstrate that a scientist's data supports her hypothesis. Another word that is used in a similar way is illustrate.

When you see the word illustrate, don't think about fine art; think about how a writer "paints a picture" with words instead. A specific example could illustrate an abstract concept, for instance, or a graph of data could illustrate a scientist's conclusion.

When you express something, you communicate it or make it known to others. In the Writing Section of the TOEFL, you will be asked to express your ideas and opinions about a topic. In reading passages, authors will express their ideas.

Multiple choice questions on the Reading Section of the TOEFL may begin with the phrase "According to the passage..." This means that you need to identify what the passage says or states about some topic, rather than relying on your own ideas or opinions.

When you confirm something, you prove it to be true. For example, the results of an experiment could confirm a hypothesis. You can remember this word by remembering how you have to confirm a doctor's appointment by saying, "Yes, I'll be there." Confirming has to do with establishing or validating.

Clarify means "to make clear." A writer might include examples to help clarify a point. Language that is used to clarify is usually easy to understand and explanatory in tone.

To disagree is to have a different opinion than someone else. People can disagree about a particular issue and passages disagree when they come to opposite conclusions.

To introduce is to present something for the first time. This word may refer to the first few paragraphs of a passage, where the main ideas are introduced for the first time, establishing what the passage is about. Over the course of a passage, new ideas or characters may be introduced. The way things are introduced can be a clue as to how the author feels about them.

When something is accurate, it is correct. Accurate data is important when performing scientific experiments, accurate calculations are required to complete math problems, and accurate statements reflect true facts.

When you approximate something, you make an educated guess about its size or amount. An approximate number is one that is close to the real value, but may not be exact. On standardized tests, especially on math or science tests, you may be asked to give approximate answers, which means you will be expected to round. A question might ask something like "Approximately how many times greater is quantity X than quantity Y?"

Likely is one of those words test writers love to use. It usually shows up in the expression most likely. For example, you may see a question like "On which of the following points would the authors of both passages most likely agree?" You can't talk to the authors and definitely find out the answer, so you are expected to make an educated guess based on the evidence in the passages.

A paragraph is a few sentences about one particular aspect of the general topic in a reading passage. You can easily spot a paragraph, because it is usually indented. Questions on the standardized tests may refer to a particular paragraph in a passage or ask you to look at specific lines within a paragraph.

When a multiple choice question asks you to choose from among the following options, you're being asked to pick one of the answer choices that comes (or "follows") right after the question. On standardized tests, the word following usually introduces a list. It could be a list of answer choices, a list of ideas in a passage, a list of possible definitions for a word, or some other list.

When you include something, you incorporate it into a larger something. You may be asked why an author most likely chose to include certain details in his or her argument; it will be your job to infer why that decision was made. The opposite of include is exclude, which means "rule out" or "prevent from joining."