The Ancient Period, Before 600 BCE: 1.5: State Formation in Ancient Afro-Eurasia (Sources 1–9)

There are several theories about why and how the great cities grew to such a large and truly peculiar size and complexity compared to the rest of the world. (Source 1)

Uruk [the earliest and largest Mesopotamian city of this period] society is typically seen as a successful adaptation to changes in the local environment—what had been a marshland in southern Iraq was now arable lands suitable for agriculture. (Source 1)

During the first half of the fourth millennium, the southern Mesopotamian alluvial [clay] plains had substantial rainfall; populations may have flocked there for the great agriculture. (Source 1)

In turn, the growth and centralization of population led to the need for specialized administrative bodies to keep it organized. (Source 1)

Economic trade might have encouraged the specialized production of goods and a chain of competition. (Source 1)

Though archaeologists originally assumed this was a war standard and named the two panels War (top) and Peace (bottom), there is no current consensus regarding the original purpose of the artifact. (Source 2)

Although details changed over time, the foundation of ancient Egyptian society was ultimately illiterate classes of laborers and servants with more independent “peasants” or “members of the middle class,” who together produced agricultural surpluses. (Source 3)

Although details changed over time, the foundation of ancient Egyptian society was ultimately illiterate classes of laborers and servants with more independent “peasants” or “members of the middle class,” who together produced agricultural surpluses. (Source 3)

Although details changed over time, the foundation of ancient Egyptian society was ultimately illiterate classes of laborers and servants with more independent “peasants” or “members of the middle class,” who together produced agricultural surpluses. (Source 3)

Their labor—primarily in the fields, but also in mining expeditions, construction projects, bakeries, breweries, and, in short, any endeavor involving hard, physical work—was required to keep temples and their divine estates running. (Source 3)

Their labor—primarily in the fields, but also in mining expeditions, construction projects, bakeries, breweries, and, in short, any endeavor involving hard, physical work—was required to keep temples and their divine estates running. (Source 3)

Their labor—primarily in the fields, but also in mining expeditions, construction projects, bakeries, breweries, and, in short, any endeavor involving hard, physical work—was required to keep temples and their divine estates running. (Source 3)

A major function of ancient Egyptian temple ritual, and religion in general, was to legitimize the transfer of the wealth that these men and women created to a very small group of elite Egyptians. (Source 3)

Once the system of taxation or surplus extraction is in place and surplus income flows freely, those who control the flow ensure that they are the ones to absorb the benefits. (Source 4)

Their military leadership roles rapidly become permanent titles of honor, and their tribute, taxation, or control of the scarce land itself (for example, the rights to labor services, crops or rent earned from it) also ensure income and accumulated wealth. (Source 4)

The treaty concluded years of war between Ramses II of Egypt and the Hittite Emperor Hattusili II.
Provision 3: There shall be no hostilities between Egypt and the Hittite Empire forever. (Source 5)

Provision 3: There shall be no hostilities between Egypt and the Hittite Empire forever. The Hittite emperor shall not pass over into the land of Egypt, forever, to take anything therefrom. Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, shall not pass over into the land of Hatti, to take anything therefrom, forever. (Source 5)

Provision 5: If another enemy come against the lands of Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, and he shall send to the Hittite emperor, saying: “Come with me as reinforcement against him,” the Hittite emperor shall [come], and the Hittite emperor shall slay his enemy. (Source 5)

But if it be not the desire of the Hittite Emperor to come, he shall send his infantry and his chariot riders, and shall slay his enemy. (Source 5)

In my third campaign I marched against Hatti [the land of the Hittites]. (Source 6)

Luli, king of Sidon, whom the terror-inspiring glamor of my lordship had overwhelmed, fled far overseas and perished. (Source 6)

As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled forts and to the countless small villages in the area. (Source 6)

As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled forts and to the countless small villages in the area. (Source 6)

He sent 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, precious stones, antimony, large cuts of red stone, fine couches and chairs inlaid with ivory, elephant-hides, ebony-wood, box-wood and all kinds of valuable treasures, as well as his own daughters, concubines, and male and female musicians. (Source 6)

If a man wishes to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children: then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. (Source 9)