The TOEFL Exam: The Language of the Test: List 2

Something that is minor is not very important. On the "prose summary" questions of the TOEFL Reading Section, you will need to identify the main ideas in a reading passage — in other words, you want to find the most important ideas, not minor ideas or details.

On standardized tests, you will most likely see the word central before the word claim or the word idea. Central in this context means "main." If you are asked to identify an argument's central claim, then you are trying to figure out the main point or main idea the writer is trying to get across.

In reading passages, an author might make a broad argument and then support that argument with specific examples. For instance, if an author is arguing that wages should be raised, she might discuss specific industries or jobs that don't pay enough for workers to afford basic necessities like rent.

To emphasize is to stress or call attention to something. Writers use a variety of techniques to emphasize certain ideas.

To highlight is to emphasize. Think of when you use a highlighter to make certain words stand out in color. Writers highlight ideas without highlighters; they use language.

Although the word address might make you think of your street address, when you see address on a standardized test, it is most likely being used in the sense of "to discuss a topic or issue." For example, a reading passage might address the effects of automobiles on air pollution.

On standardized tests, you'll see refer a lot, especially in questions that read, "The author refers to X primarily to suggest..." In this context, refers to means "brings up." You might also see the noun form reference used in a similar way.

Do you know the meaning of the word meaning? On the TOEFL, you will be asked to identify the meanings, or definitions, of vocabulary words. If you don't know a word's meaning, you can use context clues in the reading passage to help you figure it out.

To reinforce is to make stronger. An author can refer to specific examples or make specific claims that reinforce a main idea. For example, an author might use data to call attention to increased water pollution in her state, and then include a personal story about fishing in a polluted river in order to reinforce her point.

To mention is to reference or bring up something. When you mention something, you won't necessarily be going into great detail. Understanding why a certain detail or idea was mentioned can be very helpful when answering questions on the reading passages.

When you restate something, you say or write it again. This word isn't only used to refer to exact repetition, however. A passage could restate an idea using different terms, and you could restate the main idea of a passage using your own words.

A cause is a reason that something happens. The thing that happens as the result of a cause is an effect. On standardized tests, you may be asked to identify causes and effects that are described in reading passages.

An effect is the result of some cause, decision, or event. One of the effects of studying for the TOEFL Exam is feeling confident and prepared on test day!

When you see the word develop on a reading comprehension test, it usually has to do with developing ideas throughout a piece of writing. Typically, a writer cannot make his or her case in one sentence; a good argument requires the writer to develop ideas over the course of several paragraphs.

To convey is to communicate, either directly or indirectly. You might be asked about the ideas a writer is trying to convey.

A comparison is putting things together to see how they are similar or different. A writer may make a comparison between two ideas or events. As a reader, you might make a comparison between two passages or literary works.

To contrast two things is to point out or emphasize how they are different. An author might include certain details to contrast two things.

A passage on a standardized test is a distinct block of text. You will see reading passages not only on reading comprehension tests, but also on assessments that focus on science, social studies, and other subjects. You'll see this word often in question stems, where you will be asked questions that begin "According to the passage..." or "The main purpose of the passage..."

On a standardized test, a selection is either a passage that has been selected for inclusion on the test, often a passage pulled from a longer work. On the TOEFL Exam, you will answer questions about the selections you read.

To shift is to change. Sometimes a reading passage may take a turn in tone or message; the focus of a narrative may shift, or the writer's perspective might shift.

Previous means "just before." If test instructions refer to the "previous question," you need to look at the question just before the one you're now working on. Most likely, you will have to use some decisions you made in answering the last question to help you choose the answer to the question you are thinking about now.

Primarily is often used in standardized test questions to mean "mostly." For example, a test question may begin, "The author of Passage 1 refers to x primarily to suggest..." This is a way to tell you: "Sure, there could be other reasons the author refers to x, but you should be looking for the main reason!"

Just like central, the word primary tends to show up before words like purpose or claim to indicate that the main idea of a passage is being discussed, rather than less important or secondary ideas. If you're asked about a primary idea in a passage, rereading the introduction and conclusion may be a good strategy to "think big."

When you see argue on a standardized test, don't think "fight." Instead, think about making a point by building a logical argument. One author might argue that it is necessary to raise taxes on corporations, while another author argues in favor of tax cuts.

To support is to make stronger. You might be asked to identify evidence that supports an author’s claims, or you may be asked to interpret a graph and determine whether or not it supports a particular idea or conclusion. When you see the word support, think about all the things a writer does to prove his or her point.