Merton

Rather than solely focusing on the analysis of society as a whole, Merton argued that analysis could and should also be done on an organization, institution or group.[9]
[edit] Unanticipated Consequences and Manifest and Latent functions

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He thinks that some things may have consequences that are generally dysfunctional or which are dysfunctional for some and functional for others.

In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.
[edit] Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequen

Innovators find and create their own way to go about obtaining what they want, and a majority of the time, these new ways are considered to be socially unaccepted and deviant.

Rather than solely focusing on the analysis of society as a whole, Merton argued that analysis could and should also be done on an organization, institution or group.[9]
[edit] Unanticipated Consequences and Manifest and Latent functions

For more details on this topic, see Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions.

Some of the crucial innovations that Merton made to sociology include the description of the unanticipated consequences of social action, of latent functions vs. manifest functions, and, as previously mentioned, of dysfunctions.[2]

Merton is also interested in the persistence of societies and defines functions that make for the adaptation of a given social system.

Theories of the middle range are firmly supported by empirical data.

Merton and his colleagues spent much time studying "how the social system of science works in accordance with, and often also in contradiction to, the ethos of science." [2] This newer focus on the social organization of science led Merton to study the reward system in science, priority disputes between scientists, and the way in which famous scientists often receive disproportionate credit for their contributions, whereas lesser known scientists receive less credit than their contrib...

Social structures are the "organized set of social relationships in which members of the society or group are variously implicated." [8] Anomie, state of normlessness, then occurs when there is "an acute disjunction between the cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capacities of members of the group to act in accord with them." [8] In his theory, Merton links anomie with deviance and argues that the discontinuity between culture and structure have the dysfunctional cons...

His belief in empirical testing led to the development of his "paradigm" of functional analysis.[9]

Like Durkheim and Parsons he analyzes society with reference to whether cultural and social structures are well or badly integrated.

In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.
[edit] Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated.

Theories of the middle range

Merton's work is often compared to that of Talcott Parsons.

Theories of the middle range

Merton's work is often compared to that of Talcott Parsons.

In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.
[edit] Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated.

Unlike Parsons, who emphasized the necessary for social science to establish a general foundation, Merton preferred more limited, middle-range theories.

They include:

* Communalism - the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteem (Merton actually used the term Communism, but had this notion of communalism in mind, not Marxism);
* Universalism - according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality;
* Disinterestedn...

Here, Merton argues people must be willing to admit that there exist various structural and functional alternatives within society.[9]

In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.
[edit] Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated.

Middle-range theories, applicable to limited ranges of data, transcend sheer description of social phenomena and fill in the blanks between raw empiricism and grand or all-inclusive theory.

Rather than solely focusing on the analysis of society as a whole, Merton argued that analysis could and should also be done on an organization, institution or group.[9]
[edit] Unanticipated Consequences and Manifest and Latent functions

For more details on this topic, see Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions.

According to Merton, "paradigm," refers to "exemplars of codified basic and often tacit assumptions, problem sets, key concepts, logic of procedure, and selectively accumulated knowledge that guide [theoretical and empirical] inquiry in all scientific fields." [2] In terms of structural functionalism, Merton felt that the focus should be on social functions rather than on individual motives.[9]
[edit] Dysfunctions

Merton emphasizes the existence of dysfunctions.

These theories must be constructed with observed data in order to create theoretical problems and to be incorporated in proposals that allow empirical testing.[8]

Some of the crucial innovations that Merton made to sociology include the description of the unanticipated consequences of social action, of latent functions vs. manifest functions, and, as previously mentioned, of dysfunctions.[2]

Merton carried out extensive research into the sociology of science, developing the Merton Thesis explaining some of the causes of the Scientific Revolution, and the Mertonian norms of science, often referred to by the acronym "Cudos".

Here, Merton argues people must be willing to admit that there exist various structural and functional alternatives within society.[9]

This is a set of ideals that are dictated by what Merton takes to be the goals and methods of science and are binding on scientists.

Finally, Merton thinks that shared values are central in explaining how societies and institutions work,however he disagrees with Parsons on some issues.

Retreatism is the rejection of both the means and the goals.

Cultural goals Institutionalized means Modes of adaptation
+ + Conformity
+ - Innovation
- + Ritualism
- - Retreatism
± ± Rebellion

Conformity is the attaining of societal goals by socially accepted means, while innovation is the attaining of those goals in unaccepted ways.

Merton is also interested in the persistence of societies and defines functions that make for the adaptation of a given social system.

Finally, Merton thinks that shared values are central in explaining how societies and institutions work,however he disagrees with Parsons on some issues.

Merton and his colleagues spent much time studying "how the social system of science works in accordance with, and often also in contradiction to, the ethos of science." [2] This newer focus on the social organization of science led Merton to study the reward system in science, priority disputes between scientists, and the way in which famous scientists often receive disproportionate credit for their contributions, whereas lesser known scientists receive less credit than their contrib...

This outlook maintains that various parts of social systems must show a high level of integration, but Merton argues that a generalization like this cannot be extended to larger, more complex societies.

Some of the crucial innovations that Merton made to sociology include the description of the unanticipated consequences of social action, of latent functions vs. manifest functions, and, as previously mentioned, of dysfunctions.[2]

Merton is also interested in the persistence of societies and defines functions that make for the adaptation of a given social system.

According to Merton, there are also two other types of unanticipated consequences: "those that are dysfunctional for a designated system, and these comprise the latent dysfunctions, and those which are irrelevant to the system which they affect neither functionally or dysfunctionally..non-functional consequences" [9]

Merton sees attention to latent functions as increasing the understanding of society: the distinction between manifest and latent forces the sociologist to go beyond the reason...

According to Merton, middle-range theory starts its theorizing with clearly defined aspects of social phenomena, rather than with broad, abstract entities such as society as a whole.

According to Merton, middle-range theory starts its theorizing with clearly defined aspects of social phenomena, rather than with broad, abstract entities such as society as a whole.

In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.
[edit] Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated.

Merton's theory on deviance stems from his 1938 analysis of the relationship between culture, structure and anomie.

Rather than solely focusing on the analysis of society as a whole, Merton argued that analysis could and should also be done on an organization, institution or group.[9]
[edit] Unanticipated Consequences and Manifest and Latent functions

For more details on this topic, see Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions.

In his 1936 essay, "The Unanticipated Consequences of Social Action," Merton uncovered the wide field of human activity where things do not go as planned, and paradoxes and strange outcomes are seen.

The term anomie, derived from Emile Durkheim, for Merton means: a discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate means available for reaching them.[10]

Merton generally presented a misconception of a nature of Parsons' theory, which he never fully understood or appreciate despite the intellectual influence in general.

The second claim has to do with universal functionalism.

Latent functions are one type of unanticipated consequences; functional for the designated system.

Unlike Parsons, who emphasized the necessary for social science to establish a general foundation, Merton preferred more limited, middle-range theories.

Merton generally presented a misconception of a nature of Parsons' theory, which he never fully understood or appreciate despite the intellectual influence in general.

Hence, Sorokin was strongly opposed to the emphasis of the creativity of Puritanism, which was a central element in Merton's discussion.

They include:

* Communalism - the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteem (Merton actually used the term Communism, but had this notion of communalism in mind, not Marxism);
* Universalism - according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality;
* Disinterestedn...

According to Merton, there are also two other types of unanticipated consequences: "those that are dysfunctional for a designated system, and these comprise the latent dysfunctions, and those which are irrelevant to the system which they affect neither functionally or dysfunctionally..non-functional consequences" [9]

Merton sees attention to latent functions as increasing the understanding of society: the distinction between manifest and latent forces the sociologist to go beyond the...